MSc

Kerala a vibrant state renowned for its picturesque landscapes, rich cultural heritage and high literacy rates, stands out as a unique and progressive region. However, one notable aspect that has significantly influenced the state’s economic dynamics is the phenomenon of in-migration from other Indian states. The influx of labour from other states has played a pivotal role in shaping the state’s economy, bringing about positive changes. The increased availability of a diverse workforce has contributed to the growth of key economic sectors in Kerala. The construction industry, for instance, has witnessed a surge due to the additional labour force, leading to the development of infrastructure and real estate projects. Moreover, the agricultural sector has benefited from the influx of skilled and unskilled labour, enhancing productivity and contributing to food security. However, in-migration has also presented certain challenges which the state has had to address like housing, social integration, and equitable distribution of resources. Hence, the results of the study helped in evolving policy recommendations for addressing these issues.
The study was undertaken with the rationale to analyze the structural and functional dynamics of labour in-migration of sustainable livelihood of agriculture labourers, evaluating the impact of farm labour in-migration on the productivity of farms. Also, documenting the opportunities and constraints faced by in-migrant labourers.
The study followed ex-post facto research design. Through the purposive sampling method, Ernakulam district was selected as the district has a diversity of in- migrants from various states of India majorly from, West Bengal, Assam, Odisha and Bihar. Criteria-based sampling method was followed for the selection of four blocks from the district viz. Muvattupuzha, Kothamangalam, Vazhakulum and Angamaly. Then simple random sampling was followed to select in-migrants and local labourers from each block. Local labourers were selected for measuring the propensity score matching especially those who are working in pineapple farms, because a majority of migrants are working in pineapple farms. Hence, 60 in-migrants were selected randomly from each block to form a total sample size of 240. Also, 50 local labourers

were selected each from Kothamangalam and Muvattupuzha blocks, as these blocks had high production of pineapple. Whereas, 25 local labourers were selected each from Vazhakulum and Angamaly blocks because they had less production of pineapple compared to the other two blocks. Hence, the total sample size is 390 which includes 240 in-migrants and 150 local labourers.
Structural and functional dynamics were analyzed by using the sustainability livelihood security index which was based on five capitals identified by the Department of International Development (DFID) in 2000. Kothamangalam block showed a high sustainability livelihood security due to a high capital index score of human, physical and natural capital. Because the majority of in-migrants were working as a migrant agent who had completed their education up to high school and also were aware of the consequences of alcohol consumption. These in-migrants were provided with better physical facilities and also there was ample availability of natural resources. Vazhakulum block showed a high capital score for social capital and financial capital. Their high social integration with the local community and involvement in public activities due to various schemes like Changathi Literacy Project, Roshni project led to high score of the social capital index. Diverse sources of income i.e., farm as well as non-farm activities contributed to a high value of financial capital. Angamaly block showed a low score for all the capitals due to their unawareness about the consequences of alcohol consumption, unhygiene, discrimination by local people, owner, and employer, and poor standards of living. While physical capital is an exception in the Angamaly block which had moderate value due to more material and livestock possession compared to the in-migrants residing in other blocks. Based on the inferences of the sustainable livelihood security index in-migrants were categorised as permanent agricultural-based in-migrants, contract-based in-migrants, tenant in- migrants, economic in-migrants and temporal settlers. Overall Ernakulam district had a moderate score of the sustainability livelihood security index and showed that migration had a positive impact on the sustainable livelihood of in-migrants.
The impact of in-migration was evaluated by using propensity score matching for which we selected treated and controlled groups, where a treated group was in- migrant and a controlled group was local labourers, treatment of migration was given and the outcome variable was farm productivity in which yield of pineapple was considered for estimation of treatment effect. The propensity score was estimated for

each covariate to obtain the propensity score matching between the covariates of the treated and controlled groups. Optimal full matching was used to obtain the propensity score matching. Based on the standardized mean difference, covariates showing a mean difference of less than 0.5 were selected to estimate the treatment effect by using the average treatment effect on treated (ATT). The propensity score matching showed the positive impact of in-migrants on farm productivity. Farmers who hired in-migrants as labourers had more yield of 497.913 kg/ha than local labourers farm due to their diverse array of skills and knowledge of various irrigation techniques, crop pest management, varying soil techniques, etc.
Constraints were analyzed by using an Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) by taking pair-wise comparisons between various identified constraints. In-migrants were facing challenges of major housing, income, social security and employment. All these constraints were considered as criteria and under each criterion different sub-criteria were selected like overcrowded stay, poor housing conditions, limited sanitation facility, sub-contractor illegal wage deduction, social insecurity to women and children, less enrolment to children in school, lack of identity proof, lack of labour rule awareness, etc. hence, there is need to address all these challenges by implementing various policies and schemes. Along with constraints different opportunities and schemes were also identified for in-migrants from agricultural officers and respondents. They are better income, Kerala Migrant Welfare Scheme, conclusive employment facilities, Awaz health insurance scheme, and Changathi project. In conclusion, in- migration has improved the sustainable livelihood of in-migrants and also showed a positive and significant impact on the yield of various crops at destination place.