Browsing by Author "Vikram, H C"

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Characteization and evaluation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) accessions
(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Vikram, H C; Mini Raj, N
Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) is an introduced crop to India. There exists tremendous variability in the nutmeg population in Kerala, which is the major nutmeg growing state in the country. Assessment of the existing variability is a prerequisite for taking up successful crop improvement programmes, which is very much limited in this tree spice. In this context, the present study entitled “Characterization and evaluation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) accessions” was taken up exclusively with the specific objectives to characterize nutmeg accessions based on morphological, biochemical and molecular parameters so as to scale the variability in a multidimensional way. Select fifty nutmeg accessions from a core germplasm collected and maintained in a private plantation in the Chalakudy river basin, belonging to age of fifteen years, formed the material for the study. Among the select fifty accessions, forty two were females, four monoecious and four males. In the morphological characterization, 51 qualitative and 38 quantitative characters were recorded from two trees per accession. Biochemical characterization was done in the select seventeen distinct accessions. GC-MS profiling was done in kernel and mace oils. Biochemical constituents of fresh pericarp were estimated. Isozyme profiling was done for peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes. The molecular characterization was attempted with 21 RAPD and 12 ISSR primers after screening. A key for identification of an elite nutmeg tree was developed. A descriptor for nutmeg with a set of 51 qualitative and 38 quantitative parameters and descriptor states for each of these characters was developed as the first step. This is the first study of its kind to develop a minimal descriptor for nutmeg. The descriptor developed from the present study was simultaneously utilised for morphological characterization and evaluation of the accessions. Wide variability was noticed among the accessions for 47 out of 51 qualitative characters. Four characters viz., leaf margin, fruit pubescence, grooves on nut and nature of fruit dehiscence were noted as non variable characters and hence, these were not included for further analysis. Based on the qualitative characters, accessions were classified into 11 clusters at 66 per cent similarity level. Accessions differed significantly for all the quantitative characters except shelling percentage. Performance evaluation of the accessions brought out the superiority of accession 8, 9 and 22 for yield. The accessions showed high GCV, PCV, h2 and genetic gain for most of the characters. Number of fruits per tree, fruit set percentage, number of fruits per m2, fresh and dry weight of mace, mace volume as well ratio of nut to mace exhibited high genetic gain. Hence, selection programme based on these characters will be very effective in improving the base populations. Based on Mahalanobis D2 analysis, accessions were grouped into 10 clusters. Wide range of variation was observed in contents of volatile oil, oleoresin and fixed oil of kernel and mace. Based on these constituents accessions were grouped into 26 clusters, which indicated their distinct quality. Based on the results of the morphological characterization, seventeen distinct accessions were selected for further biochemical and molecular analysis. GC-MS analysis of kernel and mace oils exhibited 20 and 24 constituents respectively. Volatile oil composition exhibited wide variability for the major constituents viz., myristicin, elemicin, safrole and sabinene apart from the presence of some unique compounds. Grouping of the accessions was done based on the per cent content of these important compounds. Two accessions recorded high contents of both myristicin and elemicin whereas another two accessions were in the complimentary; belonging to low myristicin group. High sabinene combined with low myristicin was the intrinsic quality attribute of one of the accessions. Change, as well as addition/deletion of specific constituents was also noticed in the volatile oils after storage for one year. Accessions exhibited wide range of variation in the biochemical constituents of pericarp, a valuable information for the value addition of pericarp. Total phenol and tannins exhibited high variation. The accessions were ranked based on the content of biochemical constituents. Isozyme profiling using peroxidase enzyme produced four bands and that based on polyphenol oxidase exhibited three bands. Molecular markers could assess the variability among the accessions. The selected 21 RAPD primers produced a total of 164 amplicons of which 63.21 per cent were polymorphic. The 12 ISSR primers selected produced a total of 87 amplicons of which 69.44 per cent were polymorphic. Few unique bands were detected for specific characters. Inter cluster association of each of the qualitative clusters with other clustering patterns was worked out. The results indicated the differences as well as similarities of the qualitative clusters with other clustering patterns. Finally, key quantitative characters were identified based on their direct and indirect effect on yield as also economic importance. The statistical key thus developed using 13 key quantitative characters will serve as a preliminary tool for identification of an elite nutmeg tree.
Characterization of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Presl.) Accessions
(Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2024-03-05) Muhammed Musthafa, T M; Vikram, H C
Cinnamon assumes considerable importance among the perennial spices of the world as one of the most extensively used spices in the food and beverage industries. The commercial form of cinnamon is derived from the dried inner bark of the Cinnamomum verum Presl., a member of the Lauraceae family. Sri Lanka has a unique identity I producing the world’s finest quality cinnamon. In India, Meghalaya is the primary producer, though Meghalaya predominantly contributes tejpat (Cinnamomum tamala Th. Nees & Eberm) Kerala ranks sixth in the contribution of true cinnamon, making up 0.17 per cent of the total national production. The present study entitled “Characterization of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Presl.) accessions” aims to systematically examine the morpho-biochemical characteristics and evaluate the yield of cinnamon accessions grown in the high-altitude region (AEU 21) of Kerala. The study was based on cinnamon accessions of seedling origin conserved as ex-situ at the Regional Agricultural Research Station, Amabalavayal. These accessions aged about 25 years were collected from various cinnamon-growing regions and maintained through regular coppicing. A single tree represents each accession. The morphological characterization of 21 qualitative and 16 quantitative characters from the selected accessions were recorded. In the biochemical characterization, volatile oil and oleoresin from dried bark and fresh leaves from all fifty accessions were analysed. Chemical profiling of bark volatile oil was performed for superior cinnamon accessions. A modified minimal descriptor for cinnamon with a set of 21 qualitative parameters as well as descriptor states for each character was developed as the first step of the study, referring to the previous work (Krishnamoorthy et al., 1996, Azad et al., 2019 and Liyanage et al., 2020). The developed minimal descriptor for cinnamon was further subjected to the characterization of cinnamon accessions. A wide variability was further subjected to the characterization of cinnamon accessions. A wide variability was observed for 13 out of 21 qualitative characters. The study revealed that, 7 out of 11 leaf characters; 3 out of inflorescence and floral characters; all four bark characters showed variability in the cinnamon accessions. However, no variation was observed in the fruit characters. Overall, eight qualitative characters were noted as non-variable characters; hence, these were not considered for further analysis. Based on the 13 qualitative variables, accessions were delineated into four discernible clusters at a scale height nine. In the present study, considerable variation was observed among the cinnamon accessions for most of the quantitative characters. The maximum coefficient of variation was observed for inflorescence length (41.72%). Quantitative characters, viz., number of shoots per stump and dry weight of quill, were found to record more than 30 per cent of coefficient of variation. Characters recorded more than 20 per cent coefficient of variation were fresh weight of quill, leaf area, dried bark thickness, plant height, leaf oleoresin and bark volatile oil. The quill dry weight varied among the accessions and ranged from 26.50 g (Acc.20) to 103.00 g (Acc.34) per coppice. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) distinguished the distribution of quantitative characteristics into two dimensions. The first two principal axes (Dim.1 and dim. 2) explained 49.40 per cent of the total cumulative percentage of variance. The contents of volatile oil (0.35 to 1.10%; 0.5 to 2.05%) and oleoresin (7.30 to 19.40%;1.65 to 7.75%) differed significantly in both bark and leaves of cinnamon accessions, respectively. The association study through Pearson’s correlation coefficient method revealed that the fresh weight of the quill was found to have a positive and significant correlation with the dry weight of the quill, plant height, and mean firth of the coppice. Meanwhile, dry weight of the quill was found to be positive and significant with the fresh weight of the quill, plant height, bark recovery, and mean girth of the coppice. Fifty selected cinnamon accessions were ranked based on the four key yield and quality parameters namely, number of shoots per stump, bark recovery, dry bark yield, and bark volatile oil, which have a direct effect on economic importance. Subsequently, five cinnamon accessions, viz., Acc. 12, Acc. 28, Acc. 34, Acc. 39, and Acc. 56, were identified as superior performing accessions and further subjected to chemical profiling using the GC-MS technique. About fifteen constituents were identified through the analysis of bark volatiles using GC-MS. Cinnamaldehyde was a prime constituent present in cinnamon bark oil. Of the five accessions, cinnamaldehyde was present in four, and content ranged from 27.77 (Acc.28) to 40.32 (Acc.56) per cent. The Acc. 12 was dominated by linalool (34.35%). The cinnamyl acetate was predominant in all five accessions. The PCA revealed the distribution of biochemical constituents among the different principal components. Which was mainly focused on the first two principal axes (Dim. 1 and Dim. 2, constituting 86.50 per cent of the total cumulative percentage of variance. From the study considerable variation was observed between the accessions for the morphological and biochemical characters. Based on yield, its components and other quality parameter, five promising accessions were identified. These accessions varied significantly for organic acides and had high cinnamaldehyde as well as unique in linalool content. These genotypes may be targeted for further genetic improvement or be utilized in selection method of breeding programme for developing high yielding cinnamon varieties which is also rich volatile constituents for high altitude tropical conditions.
Physico-chemical and nutritional analysis of seed and seed-butter of Garcinia spp.
(Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture , Vellanikkara, 2023-01-17) Urati , Mahesh; Vikram, H C
Physico-chemical and nutritional analysis of seed and seed-butter of Garcinia spp.
(Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2023) Urati Mahesh; Vikram, H C
The genus Garcinia belonging to the family Clusiaceae is an underutilized perennial tree found throughout the tropics of Asia and Africa. Garcinia species such as cambodge (Garcinia gummi-gutta) and kokum (Garcinia indica) are commercially exploited as condiments to flavour a range of food preparations. Cambodge is grown widely in the homestead of Kerala, whereas kokum is cultivated as a traditional homestead crop in the Konkan region of Maharashtra, Goa and coastal and southern interior parts of Karnataka. The economic part of both cambodge and kokum is dried fruit rind. Plenty of seeds after fruit rind collection go as waste and only limited seeds are utilized for seedling production. It is essential to evaluate the seeds for biochemical and nutritional factors, butter recovery as well as physico-chemical and nutritional properties of butter. In this context, the present study was undertaken with the objective to characterize the physico-chemical and nutritional properties of seed and seed butter in cambodge and kokum. The experiment was carried out in the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara. Three high yielding accessions of each cambodge and kokum were selected from the department farm and college orchard of the College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, and ICAR-NBPGR, Regional Station, Vellanikkara. The significant difference was recorded among the accessions of cambodge and kokum seed powders for most of the biochemical characters and also between cambodge and kokum. The total carbohydrates, protein and total ash contents were significantly higher in cambodge seed powder (13.33 g/100 g ,1.28 g/100 g and 2.53 %) when compared to kokum seed powder (4.56 g/100 g, 0.42 g/100 g and 2.36 %), respectively. Whereas, in kokum seed powder significantly higher moisture content (11.45 %), total fat (40.28 %) and dietary fibre (4.55 %) were recorded. In the case of cambodge and kokum seed powders, all accessions exhibited significant differences in nutritional characters except for iron content. There was a significant difference in mineral composition between the cambodge and kokum seed powders. Calcium and iron contents were significantly higher in cambodge seed powder (163.20 and 16.20 mg/100 g) than that of kokum seed powder (48.30 and 14.30 mg/100 g), respectively. Whereas, potassium and sodium contents were significantly higher in kokum seed powder (608.50 and 32.10 mg/ 100 g) when compared to cambodge seed powder (478.40 and 15.00 mg/ 100 g), respectively. The recovery of butter ranged from 37.25 (petroleum benzene) to 44.98 (acetone) per cent in cambodge and 40.29 (petroleum ether) to 49.61 (acetone) per cent in kokum using different solvents. Butter recovery in cambodge and kokum were found higher in acetone compared to other solvents. But the appearance of butter was found good when extracted using petroleum ether. In both cambodge and kokum, butter extracted through the hot water skimming method ranged from 22 to 25 per cent. The seed butter extracted using petroleum ether was employed for physicochemical analysis. Among the cambodge accessions, a significant difference was recorded for the physico-chemical properties of butter except for refractive index, peroxide value and ester value. Whereas in kokum, all the accessions showed significant differences in physico-chemical properties except for ash content, iodine value and peroxide value. Moisture content, melting point, ash content, saponification value, iodine value and ester value were significantly superior in cambodge butter (0.40 %, 39.17 ℃, 0.139 %, 188.70 mg KOH/g, 57.05 g/100 g, 183.20 mg KOH/g) compared to kokum butter (0.15 %, 37.94 ℃, 0.116 %, 180.00 mg KOH/g, 37.95 g/100 g, 174.40 mg KOH/g), respectively. The oil content and peroxide value of butter were significantly higher in kokum (99.85 % and 5.81 meq/kg) than that of cambodge (99.60 % and 4.39 meq/kg), respectively. No significant difference was observed for refractive index, pH and acid value between cambodge and kokum butters. Among the cambodge accessions, significant difference was observed for nutritional composition in the seed butter. In kokum accessions, significant difference was recorded for nutritional composition except for sodium content. The significantly higher value for potassium content was recorded in cambodge (32.80 mg/100 g) compared to that of kokum (18.30 mg/100 g). Whereas for sodium content, significantly higher value was recorded in kokum butter (17.60 mg/100 g) when compared to cambodge butter (14.90 mg/100 g). No significant difference was recorded in calcium and iron contents between cambodge and kokum butters. The fatty acid profiling of seed butter in cambodge and kokum exhibited six prime fatty acids. In cambodge and kokum butters, high percentage (99) of long-chain fatty acids viz. stearic acid, oleic acid and palmitic acid were recorded. Stearic acid in cambodge butter ranged from 36.06 (acetone) to 50.76 per cent (petroleum ether), whereas in kokum butter, it ranged from 32.06 (acetone) to 62.54 per cent (petroleum benzene) using different solvents. Oleic acid percentage in cambodge butter ranged from 46.28 (petroleum ether) to 61.37 (acetone) per cent, and in the case of kokum butter it ranged from 35.59 (petroleum ether) to 65.43 per cent (acetone). The compounds such as palmitic acid, myristic acid, lauric acid and capric acid were also identified in smaller proportions in cambodge and kokum butter. In the organoleptic evaluation, cambodge and kokum butters were compared with milk and cocoa butters, which revealed that milk butter was superior in all the organoleptic qualities. Whereas, cambodge and kokum butter were significantly superior in quality attributes like appearance (7.69 and 7.53) and colour (7.58 and 7.82) compared to cocoa butter (6.82 and 6.64), respectively. Value added products viz. burfi and cake were prepared using cambodge, kokum, cocoa and milk butters. Organoleptic evaluation of value added products revealed that the burfi and cake prepared using milk butter was most accepted with a total score of 57.34, which was followed by burfi and cake of cambodge (55.48 and 53.11) and kokum (52.46 and 54.53), respectively. Both cambodge and kokum seed yield butter of food grade having high biochemical and nutritional properties which can be used in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic sectors.
Propagation and bioactivity studies in Ellotti (Pterospermum rubiginosum b. Heyne ex wight & arn.)
(Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture , Vellanikkara, 2024-09-11) Aparna, P M; KAU; Vikram, H C
The study entitled “Propagation and bioactivity studies in Ellotti (Pterospermum rubiginosum B. Heyne ex Wight & Arn.)” was conducted at the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, KAU, Vellanikkara, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, KVASU, Pookode, Wayanad from 2018 to 2023. The study aimed to collect ethnobotanical information from tribal healers in Kerala, develop vegetative propagation protocols, and investigate the bioactivity of Pterospermum rubiginosum through antioxidant, antimicrobial, wound healing, and antihyperglycemic studies. From the account of tribal healers, the bark of Pterospermum rubiginosum is an effective remedy for the treatment of fractures. The tree's bark is effectively used by the ethnomedical practitioners of different tribes in Kerala like Kurichiyan, Kattunayakan, Muthuvan, Vetta Kuruman and Kanikkar. These experienced healers assert that majority of patients respond well to the treatment, approximately one in a hundred might exhibit allergic reactions or fail to respond altogether. It may take a week to three months for a broken bone to mend. For a fracture to heal, all factors like time taken for the patient to reach the healer, severity of the fracture, patient's age, calcium status in the body and other health conditions should be considered. In the vegetative propagation study conducted during June-July and September-October, maximum rooting was observed in the June-July months, with the highest rooting percentage of 4.53 per cent. Among the growth regulators, NAA 1000 ppm was found to be significantly superior in enchaining the rooting in both hardwood and semi-hardwood cuttings of Pterospermum rubiginosum at 120 days after planting. Biochemical analysis of bark and leaves of Pterospermum rubiginosum revealed the presence of phenols, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, saponins, sugars and carbohydrates with the bark showing higher values compared to the leaves. The gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) and high resolution -liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (HR-LCMS) analysis of ethanol extracts of bark and leaves revealed the presence of 22 major compounds in the bark extract and 32 major compounds in the leaf extract. The majority of the abundant compounds belong to flavonoid, phenol, alkaloid and saponin class of compounds like 6''-caffeoylisoorientin, kaempferol 3-O-β-Dgalactoside, 3-O-cis-coumaroylmaslinic acid, epigallocatechin and patientoside A. The bark extract exhibited higher antioxidant activity in 2,2-diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl hydrate (DPPH) radical scavenging assay, 2,2–azino–bis (3- ethylbenzothiozoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical scavenging assay (ABTS), reducing power assay, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay and total antioxidant activity compared to the leaf extract, and similar activity to that of leaf extract in nitric oxide scavenging assay. The ethanol extract of both bark and leaves of Pterospermum rubiginosum were ineffective against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli up to a concentration of 1000 μg/mL in Kirby-Bauer agar disc diffusion method. However, in modified resazurin microtiter plate assay, the ethanol extract of Pterospermum rubiginosum bark exhibited minimum inhibitory concentration of 500 μg/mL against Staphylococcus aureus, while the leaf extract showed inhibition against Escherichia coli at a minimum inhibitory concentration of 1750 μg/mL. The ethanol extract of Pterospermum rubiginosum bark was used for further in vitro studies as it showed superior biochemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties compared to leaf extract. The per cent mean cell viability of ethanol extract of Pterospermum rubiginosum bark in L929 mouse skin fibroblast cells was determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and resulted an effective concentration 50 (EC50) of 100.90 μg/mL. In scratch assay using L929 mouse skin fibroblast cells, gap closure was at a faster rate in positive control, followed by test drug and normal control. The in vitro test was followed by an in vivo wound healing study in Wistar rats. The per cent reduction in wound area on the 15th day of wound induction in Wistar rats was similar in Cipladine standard (89.77 ± 2.39) and test extracts group at 2.5 per cent (86.99 ± 1.17), 5.0 per cent (87.25 ± 1.91) and 10.0 per cent (85.99 ± 1.01), which were significantly higher than normal control group (78.54 ± 2.93). The presence of keratinocytes and incompletely formed hair follicles in histopathological observations of Cipladine standard and extract 2.5 per cent group suggested that the animals were in proliferative phase of wound healing whereas, incomplete epithelialization in extracts 5.0 per cent, 10.0 per cent and normal control led to the conclusion that the animals were in inflammatory phase of wound healing. In Wistar rats, further analysis using the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) revealed that glucose values were higher one hour after glucose administration and followed by a steady decrease after one hour. After three hours, the lowest glucose values were observed in glibenclamide standard and extract at 50 mg/kg body weight groups, whereas, normal control and higher concentration groups exhibited significantly higher glucose values. The study concludes that tribal healers effectively utilise Pterospermum rubiginosum bark for healing bone fractures, wound and sprains. The ethanol extract of Pterospermum rubiginosum bark and leaves exhibited antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. In vivo wound healing studies suggested that a lower concentration of extract at 2.5 per cent was effective in wound healing compared to higher concentrations, possibly due to the presence of compounds hindering the migration of proinflammatory cytokines to the wound site. Complete wound healing could have been observed if the duration of study was increased to a few more days. Another significant finding was the reduction in glucose level in Wistar rats after administration of extract at 50 mg/kg body weight, which indicated that Pterospermum rubiginosum has anti-hyperglycemic properties. Further in vivo wound healing studies could be carried out by using bark extract at lower concentrations or by isolation of compounds responsible for wound healing
Reproductive biology and evaluation of kokum (garcinia indica (thouars) choisy) genotypes
(Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Manjunath Sharanappa Tondihal; Vikram, H C
Kokum (Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy) is a valuable yet underutilized perennial fruit tree. It is gaining importance due to multifarious uses mainly in the preparation of pleasant and attractive beverages which have rich medicinal properties. Kokum is one of the native species exhibiting a complex nature of flowering and fruiting behaviour. In the present investigation, twenty nine genotypes of kokum maintained at College Orchard, Department of Fruit Science as well as ICARNBPGR, Regional Station, Vellanikkara were studied systematically for phenological growth stages, floral characters, growth, yield and quality parameters during the period 2019-2021. In kokum, a total of 7 principal growth stages and 35 secondary growth stages were identified and described by using extended Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt and Chemische Industrie (BBCH) scale (Meier, 2001). The principal growth stage 0- the vegetative bud development recorded 17 days, stage 1- the leaf development stage took 48 days, stage 3- the shoot development extended for 65 days, stage 5- the reproductive bud development took 32 days, stage 6- flowering lasted for 11 days, stage 7- which represented the fruit development had the longest duration of 103 days and stage 8- the fruit maturity and ripening took 5 days. Among the twenty nine genotypes studied for floral characters, twelve genotypes were female, fifteen were male and one genotype produced bisexual flowers. Male flowers were of two types, type I male flowers were present in all the fifteen male trees, whereas type II male flowers were present in seven male trees. Variation was observed among the genotypes for qualitative characters of flower viz., position of inflorescence (axillary, terminal or both), calyx colour (greenish yellow to yellowish green), corolla colour (yellow to yellowish orange), nature of stamens (free in all male and bisexual flowers), presence of pistillode (present in type II male flower and absent in type I male flower), staminodes were observed in female flowers only and it ranged from 3.7 to 11.8 in number, stigmatic rays was tuberculate and it found to be similar in all the female genotypes. The genotypes varied significantly with respect to quantitative characters of flowers such as number of flowers per m2 (10.90 to 25.20), length (3.48 mm to 6.64 mm) and breadth (4.78 mm to 8.05 mm) of flower. Majority of the female trees produced solitary or in groups of two to three, whereas male and bisexual trees produced flowers in clusters. Female flowers were sessile or with small pedicels, whereas in male flowers, pedicel length ranged from 3.41 to 5.73 mm. The time of anthesis in all three types of flowers found to occur from 19.30 to 21.00 hours. The anther dehiscence in male and bisexual flowers were found to start simultaneously from 19.00 hours and it continued till 20.30 hours. Stigma receptivity was observed at the time of anthesis and it remained receptive for about 12 to 14 hours. Both type I and type II male flowers had round shaped pollen which measured about 5 µm diameter. The pollens of bisexual flowers were elongated with prominent ridges on the surface and showed same size as that of male pollen. Acetocarmine test revealed that 84.07 to 98.49 per cent of pollen were found to be viable in male and bisexual flowers of kokum. Controlled pollination was performed in different combinations, female tree as receptors and male (type I and type II flowers) as well as bisexual trees as donors for understanding pollination and fruit set behaviour in different sex form of kokum. Female trees crossed with type II male and bisexual flowers recorded 100 per cent fruit set. Female trees crossed with type I male flower recorded 60 per cent of fruit set, whereas bisexual flowers on selfing exhibited 50 per cent fruit set. In the present study, variation was noticed among the kokum genotypes with regard to the growth and leaf characters. Fruit characters were recorded from thirteen bearing genotypes and all these genotypes were found to vary significantly for the fruit characters. Fruit weight ranged from 12.17 to 40.14 g, fruit volume varied from 34.22 to 45.60 cm3 , fresh weight of rind varied from 7.15 to 21.01 g, dry weight of rind ranged from 1.09 to 3.07 g, rind to seed ratio ranged from 0.81 to 1.77 and rind thickness varied from 2.46 to 3.41 mm. Genotype, IC552528-3 recorded maximum number of fruits per m2 (71.10), ACC.FSC-9 had produced the highest number of fruits per tree (2258) and fruit yield per tree (60.64 kg). Kokum genotypes differed significantly for all the biochemical parameters except moisture content. Moisture content ranged from 82.91 to 90.34 per cent, titratable acidity ranged from 2.30 to 4.47 per cent, total sugars varied from 4.32 to 10.60 per cent, TSS ranged from 5.65 to 14.15 0Brix and anthocyanin content varied from 11.12 to 25.01 mg per 100 g. Genotypes were ranked based on the biochemical composition of the fruit rind. Genotypes, IC552528-3 and IC136687-3 which had significantly high TSS and low acidity were ranked as superior quality genotypes and these genotypes can be utilised for value addition. Based on the yield and quality parameters nine genotypes were selected for organic acid profiling of kokum rind. The Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (LCMS) analysis revealed that eleven major constituents are present in kokum rind. Total organic acids in the genotypes varied from 47.12 (IC342319-2) to 759.29 mg/g (ACC.FSC-1). Among the different organic acids, hydroxycitric acid (HCA) was predominant (1908.48 mg/g) followed by citric acid (1254.89 mg/g). Significantly the highest HCA (652.52 mg/g) was recorded in ACC.FSC-6. It has antiobesic, anticholesterol and UV protecting properties and hence, genotypes which are found rich in HCA can be utilised by the pharmaceutical industries. Cluster analysis of kokum genotypes based on organic acids formed five different clusters. Genotypes under the same cluster showed more similarity in bioactive compounds. Principal component analysis distinguished distribution of organic acid constituents into two axes. The axes first two principal components explained 63.03 per cent of total variance. The knowledge on variability of chemical constituents has vital role in identification of chemotypes which pave way for investigation on therapeutic potential of genotypes.
Vegetative malformation in Malabar Tamarind [Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N Robson]
(Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2026) Aswathy Suresh; Vikram, H C
Malabar tamarind [Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N. Robson] is a multipurpose tree belonging to the Clusiaceae family and is native to the Western Ghats of India. The species has attained commercial importance due to the presence of Hydroxycitric Acid in its fruit rind, which exhibits anti-obesity properties and is also valued for its antioxidant activity attributed to polyphenols, anthocyanins, and garcinol. In Kerala, the fruit rind, locally referred to as kudampuli, is utilized as a condiment to impart a distinctive sour flavour to traditional cuisine. Previous studies on Malabar tamarind have primarily focused on its taxonomic diversity and phytochemical composition. However, limited research has addressed vegetative malformation, a disorder characterized by stunted leaves, loss of apical dominance, formation of scaly leaf shootlets, shortened internodes, and hypertrophied vegetative buds. These symptoms closely resemble those observed in mango malformation, a condition that substantially reduces flowering and fruit yield. Despite this similar resemblance, comprehensive information regarding the etiology of vegetative malformation in Malabar tamarind is lacking. The present study entitled “Vegetative malformation in Malabar tamarind [Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N. Robson]”, aims to elucidate the physiological, biochemical, and nutritional factors associated with this disorder. The research work was carriedout at the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, during 2023-2025.The study utilized genetic resources of Malabar tamarind conserved at ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Regional Station, Vellanikkara, and Regional Agricultural Research Station, Kumarakom, Kerala Agricultural University, in addition to germplasm obtained through purposive sampling. A comprehensive survey of 352 genotypes across three locations in the first experiment revealed varying levels of malformation incidence. The genotypes conserved at the Regional Agricultural Research Station in Kumarakom exhibited the highest rate of malformation, followed by those conserved at the ICAR-NBPGR, Regional Station, Vellanikkara, whereas the Garcinia block, Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara showed a minimal incidence. Based on symptoms, trees were graded on a scale of 0-5. Eleven accessions, comprising ten malformed and one healthy genotype, were selected for detailed monthly observations from January to September 2025. Analysis of weather parameters revealed significant variations between environmental factors and malformation progression, as well as vegetative parameters. Total sunshine hours showed a significant and negative correlation with malformation incidence (r = -0.854), while relative humidity (r = 0.752) and rainfall (r = 0.703) also exhibited significant and positive correlations. Maximum temperature (r = -0.472) and minimum temperature (r = -0.514) were negatively correlated. Vegetative parameters, such as leaf length, leaf width, petiole length, internodal length, and leaf area, exhibited significant and positive correlations with relative humidity (r = 0.885 to 0.938) and rainfall (r = 0.681 to 0.909), and significant and negative correlations with total sunshine hours (r = -0.583 to -0.880). The nutrient analysis evaluated the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur in healthy and malformed tissues across four seasons. Significant interaction effects between season and tissue type were identified. Healthy tissues consist of higher levels of nitrogen (1.33%), calcium (1.10%), magnesium (0.30%), and sulphur (0.32%) compared to malformed tissues. In contrast, malformed tissues exhibited elevated potassium (0.51%), while phosphorus levels remained similar between tissue types. Nitrogen concentrations were highest during the post-monsoon and monsoon seasons (1.26%). Phosphorus (0.18%) and potassium (0.52%) peaked in winter. Calcium reached its maximum during the monsoon (1.56%), and magnesium was most abundant in summer (0.29%). Malformed tissues had significantly greater protein content (11.62%) than healthy tissues (6.36%), with the highest value observed in winter (17.62%). Ascorbic acid concentrations were significantly higher in healthy tissues (257.42 mg 100 g⁻¹) than in malformed tissues (224.42 mg 100 g⁻¹), with winter exhibiting the highest levels (264.89 mg 100 g⁻¹). Endogenous ethylene was substantially increased in malformed tissues (0.24 µL kg⁻¹ h⁻¹) compared to healthy tissues (0.18 µL kg⁻¹ h⁻¹), supporting the stress ethylene hypothesis. Auxin content was significantly reduced in malformed tissues (1790.24 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹) relative to healthy tissues (2212.38 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹), with the highest auxin levels recorded post-monsoon (3078.46 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹) and the lowest during the monsoon (1285.58 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹). Light microscopy of hand-microtome sections indicated normal cellular morphology in both healthy and malformed tissues. Vegetative malformation in Malabar tamarind appears to be a multifactorial disorder influenced by environmental stress, nutritional deficiencies, and hormonal imbalances. A significant and positive correlation with monsoon conditions, combined with deficiencies of nitrogen, calcium, and magnesium, as well as elevated stress ethylene and reduced auxin levels in malformed tissues, suggests that the disorder develops under physiological stress. These findings offer comprehensive insights into the etiology of vegetative malformation and provide a base for integrated management strategies. Further, research into pathological mechanisms, soil rhizosphere dynamics, and hormonal regulation may help identify the precise causes of these conditions. Additionally, screening and characterizing resistant genotypes will support breeding programmes aimed at developing malformation-tolerant cultivars and conserving genetic resources, thereby promoting the sustainable production of this economically important crop.
Vegetative propagation through cuttings and air layering in cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum presl)
(Department of plantation, spices, medicinal and aromatic crops , college of agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2023-12-06) Dharani, B.; Vikram, H C
Cinnamon commonly referred to as sweet wood or dalchini is one of the earliest recognized spices which is cultivated primarily for its dried inner bark. It is indigenous to tropical regions and naturally thriving in Sri Lanka and the southern coastal areas of Indian subcontinent and belonging to the Lauraceae family. This versatile spice is extensively employed as a flavour enhancer including cakes, sweets, incense, toothpaste, and perfumes etc. It is an evergreen perennial spice commonly propagated through seeds. The cinnamon seeds cannot endure desiccation, so they must be planted promptly after being extracted from the fruit. Many of the cinnamon plantations are of seedling origin, exhibiting natural variability. Vegetative propagation techniques will pave the way to develop true-to-type progenies and helpful in conservation of genotypes. Hence, the present study entitled “Vegetative propagation through cuttings and air layering in cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Presl.)” was carried out in the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops during 2022-2023 which comprises of three experiments viz., standardization of propagation by cuttings, standardization of growing media for cuttings and standardization of air layering. In the first experiment, the propagation by cuttings was evaluated. For softwood cuttings, the minimum number of days for sprouting was observed in IAA at 300 ppm (11.00 days). The shoot length was not significantly affected by different growth regulators. The number of leaves produced was significantly superior at 120 DAP in IBA 100 ppm with 6.91 leaves planted during monsoon season (first fortnight of June). Whereas, IAA at 100 ppm recorded the maximum leaf area (5.80 cm²) in 120 DAP. The cuttings planted during the first fortnight of June with IAA at 300 ppm induced the maximum number of sprouts (2.63). The maximum root length (7.15 cm) and volume (1.95 cm3) was recorded in IBA 100 ppm treated cuttings during post monsoon season (first fortnight of November). With respect to sprouting percentage at 120 DAP, IBA 100 ppm was significantly superior (55.00 %) compared to other treatments. Cuttings planted during monsoon season (first fortnight of June) with IBA 200 ppm recorded the maximum survival percentage (52.50 %) followed by IBA 300 ppm (42.50 %) in 90 DAP (First fortnight of September and February). With respect to semi-hardwood cuttings, those treated with IBA at 400 ppm recorded a minimum sprouting duration of 6.75 days. The highest shoot length, reaching 4.31 cm, was observed in IAA at 600 ppm at the end of 120 DAP (first fortnight of October and March). The maximum number of leaves (6.11) was noted in IAA at 400 ppm during monsoon season (first fortnight of June) at 120 DAP. In terms of leaf area, cuttings planted during monsoon season with IBA at 600 ppm showed superiority, recording a maximum of 7.88 cm2. At 90 DAP, the highest number of sprouts (2.62) was recorded in the monsoon season. Semi-hardwood cuttings treated with IBA at 800 ppm produced maximum root length of 5.46 cm and a volume of 1.43 cm3 during post-monsoon season (first fortnight of November). The highest sprouting percentage (67.50%) was recorded with IBA at 600 ppm in 60 DAP. Additionally, IBA at 800 ppm exhibited the maximum survival percentage of 32.50. The hardwood cuttings planted during the monsoon season (first fortnight of June) had shortest duration for sprouting, taking 10.29 days. The maximum shoot length was observed in IBA at 2000 ppm, reaching 8.46 cm. The maximum number of leaves (6.56 leaves) was also recorded in IBA at 2000 ppm, whereas cuttings treated with IBA at 1000 ppm had the maximum leaf area (5.30 cm2). Compared to post monsoon season, the highest number of sprouts (2.20) was recorded during the monsoon season. Cuttings treated with IBA at 1000 ppm during the monsoon season exhibited maximum sprouting percentage (82.50%) and maximum survival percentage of 21.25%. In the histological studies, it was observed that semi-hardwood cuttings had a lower xylem frequency compared to softwood cuttings. In the second experiment, semi-hardwood cuttings planted during the rainy season using different growing media were evaluated. The coir pith used for planting had an ideal pH of 6.8 and an electrical conductivity (EC) of 0.15 d S/m. Coir pith + FYM + VAM recorded the shortest sprouting duration, taking only 6.75 days. At 120 DAP (first fortnight f October), Coir pith + FYM + Trichoderma viride recorded the maximum shoot length (2.12 cm). The maximum number of leaves was recorded in the control (Sand + Soil + FYM) with 6.13 leaves. Coir pith + FYM + Trichoderma viride resulted in the maximum leaf area (4.78 cm2), whereas Coir pith + FYM + VAM had an area of 4.71 cm2. Coir pith + Vermicompost was found to be significantly superior, with a sprouting percentage of 36.25. No significant differences were observed with respect to survival percentage and number of sprouts produced from the cinnamon cuttings in all the growing media. Due to the lack of rooting, root length, and volume were not recorded in all growing media. In the third experiment, the performance of air layering at different time intervals was examined. The maximum root length (5.41 cm), number of adventitious roots (5.26) and root volume (2.86 cm3) were found to be significantly superior in June-July month compared to other months. The number of days taken for separation was recorded minimum in June-July (66.00 days) and maximum in August-September (68.57 days). The shoots layered during June-July and August-September resulted maximum rooting success (61.43 % and 57.14 %) respectively. At the same time October- November air layered shoots had formed no roots. The present study revealed that monsoon season is the best period for cinnamon vegetative propagation. Among softwood, semi-hardwood and hardwood cuttings, it is recommended to use semi-hardwood cuttings with IBA 800 ppm for planting due to their higher survival percentage. The suitable growing media for semi-hardwood cuttings was a combination of coir pith, FYM (Farm Yard Manure), and VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza). Air layered during June-July recorded maximum survival percentage (82.50 %) and minimum in August-September (75.00%). When comparing the both vegetative propagation methods, air layering is the most ideal method of propagation in cinnamon with respect to the ease of doing and the resources required and higher success percentage. Hence, air layering is the most ideal propagation method which can be commercially practised in the months of June- July and August- September under humid tropical conditions of Kerala.