PG Thesis
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Item Economics of production and marketing of G.1. tagged Kodungallur snap melon(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2026) Sangeetha MalladaguddaSnap melon (Cucumis melo var. momordica), locally known as Kodungallur pottuvellari, was a traditional variety grown in Kodungallur and nearby areas of Thrissur and Ernakulam districts of Kerala. Owing to its unique quality attributes linked to the region’s agro-climatic conditions, it received G.I. status in 2022. Mature fruits were used to prepare a refreshing summer juice. Despite its nutritional and economic importance, systematic economic studies on snap melon remained limited; hence, the present study was undertaken to fill this gap. The objectives were to examine the economics of cultivation, analyse marketing efficiency, and identify production and marketing constraints. A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted, and the survey was conducted in the G.I. certified cultivation area during 2024-25. A total of 122 farmers and 10 market intermediaries were selected, making the total sample size 132. The cost of cultivation was estimated using CACP cost concepts, resource use efficiency was analysed through the Cobb–Douglas production function, marketing efficiency was measured by Acharya and Agarwal’s method, and constraints were analysed using Garrett’s ranking technique. Socio-economic analysis showed that the majority of farmers were middle-aged and predominantly male. Most of the farmers had an education of SSLC or above. Among the sample farmers, 76.23 per cent were marginal farmers, 77.87 per cent had medium-sized families, and 58.82 per cent depended primarily on farming. A large share of farmers had farming experience and experience in snap melon cultivation for more than 20 years. Cultivation practices were categorised into monocropping and intercropping, organic and INM, and drip and conventional irrigation. Across all categories evaluated, intercropping recorded the highest cost of cultivation (Cost C3) at ₹1,70,641/ha. However, drip irrigation registered the highest gross returns (₹3,21,846/ha), the highest net returns (₹1,57,801/ha), the highest yield (12.13 t/ha), and the lowest cost of production (₹13.52/kg). Economic efficiency was highest under organic farming, with the highest B:C ratio (1.97), closely followed by drip irrigation (1.96) and monocropping (1.95), showing that these practices yielded better returns per rupee spent. The highest difference in net returns, amounting to ₹70,714, was observed between monocropping and intercropping, suggesting that the cropping pattern created the greatest income disparity between alternative practices. Notably, the better- performing practices like organic farming, drip irrigation, and monocropping were also the most widely adopted practices by farmers in the study area, indicating that farmers were already practicing economically profitable methods. The Average cost of cultivation for the overall sample size showed that the total cost of cultivation (Cost C3) was ₹1,66,713 per ha. Hired human labour and family labour shared the major share in cost, highlighting the labour-intensive nature of the snap melon. Farm business income was ₹2,22,775 per ha, and family labour income was ₹2,15,013 per ha. The net returns amounted to ₹1,78,814 per ha, and the B: C ratio of 2.07 confirmed the economic viability of snap melon cultivation in the study area. Resource use efficiency analysis showed that seed rate, hired labour, plant nutrients, and family labour negatively influenced yield, with seed rate being the most statistically significant and overused input. Machine labour and irrigation had positive but insignificant effects, and decreasing returns to scale (–0.86) indicated inefficient resource use. In drip irrigation, seed rate was overused, and machine labour was underused, with decreasing returns to scale of –0.70. Under conventional irrigation, seed rate, hired labour, and family labour were statistically significant but negatively affected yield, with stronger decreasing returns to scale (–1.06), highlighting greater inefficiency. Optimizing seed and labour use and increasing mechanization, particularly under drip irrigation, could improve efficiency and profitability. Six channels were identified for the fruit marketing of snap melon. Channel I (direct producer–consumer) recorded the highest marketing efficiency (6.81), lowest marketing cost and price spread, and highest producer’s share (87.19%), though it was adopted by fewer farmers due to perishability and storage constraints. Channel II was the most widely used channel (35.25%), with an efficiency of 1.11 and a producer’s share of 52.64 per cent, and emerged as the second-best channel. For juice marketing, five channels were identified. Channel I (direct farmer marketing) recorded the highest producer’s share (66.29%), highest marketing efficiency (1.97), and lowest marketing cost (₹29.50), making it the most efficient, followed by Channel II, which showed moderate efficiency (0.52) and a producer’s share of 34.32 per cent despite the highest total cost. Channels III to V, involving wholesalers and contractors, recorded lower efficiency, higher costs, and greater price spreads. Major production constraints included untimely rainfall, followed by high labour costs, labour shortages during peak periods, high input costs, small landholdings, field-level fruit losses, and poor soil fertility. Marketing constraints were dominated by price fluctuations, distress sales due to low shelf life, transportation difficulties, low demand during seasonal oversupply, and intermediary control over pricing. Based on the results, the following policy interventions are suggested: developing a scientific package of practices, standardizing harvest maturity indices, implementing crop insurance, establishing storage and processing facilities, promoting FPO-based collective marketing, and supporting participation in G.I. exhibitions and trade fairs to improve market access, returns, and profitability, thereby enhancing the economic welfare of snap melon farmers.Item Dynamics of co-operative credit and its impact on agricultural development in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2026-02-11) Divyapriya Rahul; Anil KuruvilaThe thesis titled “Dynamics of co-operative credit and its impact on agricultural development in Kerala” examines the long-term development and role of co-operative agricultural credit in Kerala and its impact on agricultural growth and farmers’ livelihoods during the period from 1980-81 to 2022-23. Co-operative institutions, especially Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) and Primary Co-operative Agricultural and Rural Development Banks (PCARDBs), have been important sources of rural finance in Kerala. They provide loans to farmers for crop production, irrigation, machinery, plantation development, and other agricultural activities. Despite the importance, the distribution and effectiveness of co-operative credit have differed widely across districts and over time. This study aims to understand how co-operative credit has evolved, how it has contributed to agricultural development, and how it has affected individual farming households in Kerala. The study is based on both secondary and primary data. Secondary data were collected from government reports, institutional records, and official databases relating to co-operative credit and agricultural development. These data cover all districts of Kerala and span more than four decades. Primary data were collected from 160 farmer borrowers selected from four districts, viz., Pathanamthitta, Alappuzha, Malappuram, and Palakkad. These districts were chosen to represent areas with low and high levels of credit disbursement and different agricultural systems. This combination of data sources enabled a comprehensive analysis of both long-term trends and household-level impacts. The analysis was guided by three main objectives. The first objective was to examine the changing pattern and growth of co-operative credit in Kerala. The second objective was to assess the contribution of co-operative credit to agricultural development, while the third objective was to study the impact of co-operative credit on farmers’ income and standard of living. Various statistical and econometric tools such as growth rate analysis, inequality measures, cointegration tests, causality analysis, and regression models were used to achieve these objectives. iii To study the growth and performance of PACS and PCARDBs, the entire study period was divided into three phases, which were identified on the basis of structural break analysis. The first phase (1980-81 to 2001-02) was a period of rapid expansion and institutional strengthening. During this period, most districts experienced strong growth in membership, deposits, share capital, working capital, and credit disbursement. Farmers increasingly trusted co-operative institutions and deposited their savings in them. Deposit mobilisation became the main source of funds, which reduced excessive dependence on external borrowing. Both short-term crop loans and long-term investment loans expanded, indicating rising agricultural activity and investment. However, some districts such as Kottayam and Thrissur showed relatively weaker growth, suggesting early signs of saturation or limited investment demand. The second phase (2002-03 to 2011-12) was a period of transition. During this period, the growth of co-operative institutions slowed down in many districts. Competition from commercial banks, the spread of Kisan Credit Card scheme and changes in rural finance policies affected the functioning of PACS. Deposit mobilisation continued, but growth in share capital weakened in several regions. As a result, co-operatives became more dependent on borrowings from higher financing agencies. While some districts such as Palakkad, Kozhikode, and Malappuram performed relatively well, others like Wayanad, Kottayam, and Thiruvananthapuram recorded stagnation. Credit expansion also became concentrated among fewer borrowers in some areas, reducing inclusiveness. The third phase (2012-13 to 2022-23) represents a period of partial revival and institutional stabilisation. Membership and share capital increased in many districts, reflecting renewed confidence among farmers. Internal resource mobilisation improved, and dependence on external borrowings declined compared to the previous phase. Long- term investment credit expanded in several districts, especially for plantation development, irrigation, and mechanisation. However, short-term and medium-term credit growth slowed in many regions due to increased competition from banks and digital credit platforms. Performance across districts remained uneven, with some districts showing balanced growth while others lagged behind. A similar analysis was carried out for PCARDBs, which mainly provide long- term agricultural loans. In the first phase, several districts such as Wayanad, Palakkad, iv and Ernakulam recorded strong institutional and credit growth. However, dependence on external borrowings was high in many areas. In the second phase, institutional restructuring improved financial stability in some districts, but growth remained selective. In the third phase, long-term credit expanded sharply, indicating renewed investment activity, but this expansion was often supported by external funds rather than internal resources and as a result, concerns about the financial autonomy persisted. The study also analysed the regional distribution of medium-term and long-term co- operative credit. The results showed that credit distribution in Kerala has been highly unequal across districts throughout the study period. A few districts such as Ernakulam, Kottayam, Thrissur, and Kollam consistently received a large share of investment credit, while districts such as Idukki, Wayanad, Kasaragod, and Alappuzha remained under- served. Even after adjusting credit amounts based on cultivated area, inequalities remained high. This indicates that institutional strength, cropping patterns, and historical development play more important roles than land size in determining the credit access. Established co-operative networks and diversified commercial agriculture enabled certain districts to attract more credit, while weaker regions faced persistent constraints. To assess the contribution of co-operative credit to agricultural development, the study examined the long-term and short-term relationships between credit and agricultural indicators. The results show that co-operative credit has a stable relationship with cropping intensity, fertilizer use, irrigated area, plantation area, and agricultural output. This means that credit and agricultural development have moved together over time. In the short run, credit availability was found to encourage better farming practices and investment in agriculture. However, the impact of credit on output and income was gradual rather than immediate. The micro-level analysis based on primary data provides important insights into how farmers use co-operative credit. The sample farmers were mostly older, experienced cultivators with low levels of formal education and small landholdings. This reflects the ageing nature of agriculture in Kerala and limited participation of younger generations. Most households belonged to the medium-income category, with income levels influenced by crop diversification and non-farm activities.The study v found that the amount of credit sanctioned to farmers was mainly determined by collateral availability and existing indebtedness rather than by actual production needs. Factors such as land size, education, and cultivation expenses had little influence on loan size. This indicates that lending decisions were guided more by institutional rules and risk considerations than by farm requirements. As a result, credit allocation was not always aligned with the productive potential. The study also found that farm income was influenced mainly by cultivated area, production expenditure, and farming experience. The amount of co-operative credit borrowed did not have a significant direct impact on income. This suggests that credit alone does not guarantee higher income unless it is used effectively for productive investments. The analysis of loan utilisation revealed that a considerable number of borrowers diverted loans for non-productive purposes such as household consumption, repayment of old debts, medical expenses, and coping with climatic or wildlife-related losses.. Consequently, co-operative credit often functioned as a means of stabilising household consumption and managing risks rather than promoting productive investment. The study concluded that Kerala’s co-operative credit system has expanded significantly over the past four decades and has played a vital role in supporting agricultural activities. However, its growth has been spatially uneven and institutionally driven. Investment-oriented credit was more unequally distributed than short-term crop loans, limiting development in weaker regions. At the macro level, co-operative credit supports agricultural intensification and structural transformation. At the micro level, its developmental impact is limited by risk-averse lending practices, ecological challenges, and diversion of funds. The study recommends increasing the share of long- term investment credit, strengthening deposit mobilisation and share capital, adopting district-specific revival strategies, aligning credit with agro-ecological conditions, and linking credit with technology adoption and advisory services. It also emphasises the need for flexible lending products, better monitoring of loan utilisation, and incentive- based repayment systems. Integrating credit with farm support services can improve productivity and repayment capacity. These measures can enhance the effectiveness of co-operative credit as a tool for sustainable and inclusive agricultural development in Kerala.Item Economic loss assessment in farming due to human wildlife conflict in Idukki district of Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2026) Adarsh, B SajeevHuman-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) refers to interactions between humans and wildlife that result in negative impacts on human life, property, livelihoods, or safety, as well as on wildlife conservation and habitat preservation. These conflicts arise primarily at the interface between human settlements and wildlife habitats, where competition for space and resources occurs. Kerala state possesses a remarkable forest coverage of 11,521 square kilometres, constituting 56.78 per cent of its total geographical area, significantly higher than the national average. Among the districts in Kerala, Idukki has the highest forest cover and has extensive collection of flora and fauna. This creates a tension in the human settlements near the forest fringes. “Economic loss assessment in farming due to human wildlife conflict in Idukki district of Kerala” was undertaken to identify the nature and type of damage caused by wild animals, quantify the magnitude of direct loss associated with HWC and estimate the magnitude of the indirect cost of HWC. The study was carried out in Marayoor Forest Division which comes under the High Range Circle Kottayam, in which 90 farmers each from Marayoor and Kanthalloor range were surveyed using a well-structured and pre-tested interview schedule. The socioeconomic characters revealed that most of the farmers belonged to the age group of 45-60 and depended on agriculture as their major occupation. Primarily, it was essential to identify the types of damages experienced by farmers. The findings revealed that trampling, breaking, and feeding constituted the most damaging forms of wildlife activity, with elephants, wild gaur, wild boar, sambar deer, and monkeys being the primary species responsible for conflict. Results obtained through the Garrett ranking technique, together with perceptions of the farmers, indicated that conflict intensity was not uniform throughout the year, rather, it tended to peak during the summer months when resource scarcity and animal stress drove wildlife closer to agricultural fields. The economic assessment of direct costs underscored the alarming scale of crop losses in the region. Using the market price method, the study estimated that farmers collectively incurred direct losses amounting to nearly ₹72 lakh, demonstrating the substantial economic vulnerability of households dependent on agriculture. Banana, ii beans, sugarcane, and several perennial crops displayed particularly high susceptibility, especially when damage occurred during critical crop growth stages. Despite the magnitude of such losses, only 13 per cent of affected farmers applied for compensation. Their reluctance originated from disproportionately high transaction costs including the time, effort, and expenses involved in navigating bureaucratic procedures relative to the ex-gratia amounts received. This mismatch illustrated structural deficiencies in the existing compensation system, which neither reflected the true extent of economic loss nor incentivised farmers to report incidents formally. The study’s examination of indirect costs, which were often overlooked in conventional assessments of HWC, revealed a far deeper socioeconomic burden. Farmers incurred considerable opportunity costs due to the time spent in guarding crops and monitoring animal movement. The average opportunity cost of labour was estimated at ₹19,863 per year, while average annual household expenditure on preventive measures such as fencing, lighting, and deterrent devices was ₹10,959. When transaction costs were included, the total indirect cost incurred by an average household reached ₹30,928. These estimates demonstrated that indirect costs represented a substantial and persistent economic drain, one that was not compensated under existing policies. This evidence indicated the need for more comprehensive valuation frameworks in future HWC assessments. A notable contribution of the study lay in its assessment of farmer wellbeing through a beta-weighted regression index. By standardising indicators and estimating beta coefficients using multiple regression, a composite wellbeing index was constructed to capture the economic and social effects of HWC. The results indicated that although 163 farmers fell within the moderate wellbeing category, a significant proportion experienced negative wellbeing outcomes. Variables such as income, age, education, and the extent of area damaged significantly influenced wellbeing. High economic losses, prolonged stress, sleep disruption, and recurring fear of wildlife attacks adversely affected psychological stability and livelihood security, as further illustrated through heatmap analysis of stress indicators. The study also applied the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) to estimate farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for improved mitigation measures. Farmers were presented with a hypothetical scenario of enhanced conflict mitigation system and were asked to indicate their maximum WTP. The mean stated annual WTP amounted to ₹6,404 , while the regression estimated WTP was approximately ₹6,200 per year. These findings indicated that farmers recognised the need for collective action and were willing to contribute financially to community led mitigation initiatives. Based on these insights, the study proposed several policy recommendations. First, animal specific deterrent mechanisms particularly for elephants, gaur, and wild boar should be implemented through cluster level solar fencing, automated detection systems, and strategically placed physical barriers. Second, ex-gratia payment structures needed revision to incorporate both direct and indirect costs, thereby ensuring fair and adequate compensation. Third, administrative procedures required simplification, and verification processes needed decentralisation to reduce transaction costs and improve accessibility. Fourth, wellbeing oriented approaches, such as clinical ethnographic assessments, should be integrated into long term HWC management to monitor stress, trauma, and behavioural changes among affected communities. Finally, strengthening Jan Jagratha Samithis and fostering community led initiatives supported partly through farmer WTP could promote sustainable, participatory mitigation systems that addressed both ecological and livelihood concerns.Item Industrial waste based nano mineral fertilizer for yield enhancement in aerobic rice (Oryza sativa L.)(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2026) Kavvampalli Mahadev; Susha, V SThe research entitled “Industrial waste based nano mineral fertilizer for yield enhancement in aerobic rice (Oryza sativa L.)” was conducted during 2023-2025 at College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The research programme was aimed at synthesis of nano slag, characterization of slag and nano slag and evaluation of nano slag based mineral fertilizer on growth and yield of aerobic rice. Nano slag was synthesized using high energy ball mill and SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) analysis of the nano slag depicted angular, cube-like particles with a rough surface texture and often clustered together. The average particle size observed was 160 nm. X- ray diffraction spectra exhibited a broadened peak at 30º and 35º (2ϴ) indicating the presence of well-defined crystalline phase dominated by magnesium-rich periclase (MgO), calcium ferrite (CaFe2O4), lime (CaO), and (SiO2), along with fractions of manganese oxide and phosphate-associated minerals. FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy) spectra of nano slag revealed the presence of siloxane bond (Si-O-Si) corresponding to peaks at 711-602 cm-1 and 985-875 cm-1. X- ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of the slag sample revealed that the material predominantly comprised of CaO (50.60%), Fe2O3 (15.40%), SiO2 (10.70%), MgO (1.71%), P2O5 (1.79%) and MnO (0.41%). The field experiment was carried out at the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, from March 26/03/25 to July 06/07/25, with KAU Manuratna as the test variety. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design with ten treatments replicated thrice. The treatments were a combination of two factors and a control, first factor being phosphorus fertilization (p), viz., p1-No Phosphorus fertilizer, p2- 50% RDP and p3-100% RDP, second factor, nano slag (n) viz., n1- without nano slag, n2- nano slag at 3 t ha-1 and n3- nano slag at 5 t ha-1) and control C- KAU (POP). FYM (Farm Yard Manure), N and K nutrients were applied uniformly as per KAU POP. Results of the experiment revealed that phosphorus fertilization and nano slag had a significant effect on the growth and yield attributes of aerobic rice. The treatment combination p3n3 (100% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag) resulted in taller plants at 30 DAS, 45 DAS and 60 DAS (55.77cm, 71.67 cm and 89.10 cm), with p2n3 (50% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag) being statistically on par at 30 and 60 DAS, and p3n2 (100% RDP + 3 t ha⁻¹ nano slag) at 60 DAS. The lower plant height was observed in p1n1 (0% RDP without nano slag). The highest number of tillers m-2 (310.33, 426.10 and 508.54 m-2 respectively) was noted in p3n3 (100% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag) at 30 DAS, 45 DAS and 60 DAS. Leaf Area Index (LAI) was recorded higher in p3n3 (3.24, 3.69 and 4.19 respectively) at 30 DAS, 45 DAS and 60 DAS and was on par with p2n3 at 60 DAS. The Higher dry matter production (5428 kg ha-1) was recorded in p3n3 and was found to be on par with p2n3. Yield observations indicated that p3n3 (100% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag) resulted in higher number of productive tillers m-2 (435.58), Significantly higher number of grains per panicle (143.69), higher grain yield (3380 kg ha-1) and straw yield (4705 kg ha-1) and was found to be on par with p2n3 (50% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag) in all the yield parameters. The treatment combinations were compared with control treatment (KAU POP) by contrast analysis and found that p2n3 and p3n3 were on par with control in both grain and straw yield. Nutrient content and uptake also showed a significant variation across the treatment combinations. Higher uptake of N, P and K was recorded in p3n3 (75.641, 26.115 and 93.12 kg ha-1 respectively) and with respect to P and K, it was found to be on par with p2n3 (24.76 and 92.54 kg ha-1 respectively). The treatment p3n3 (100% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag) resulted in significantly higher content of Ca, Mg and Si in straw and grain and was found to be on par with p2n3. Micronutrient content of Mn and Cu in straw and grain were higher in p3n3 (100% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag), whereas Fe and Zn content were higher in p2n2 (50% RDP + 3 t ha⁻¹ nano slag). Among soil properties, Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) was significantly higher (5.73, (c mol (p+) kg -1) in p1n3 (0% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag) and was found to be on par with p2n3(50% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag). However, pH was recorded higher (5.97) in p3n3 (100% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag). When compared against the control (KAU POP) p1n3, p2n3 and p3n3 were found to be on par. Soil Available N, P, K (248.50, 29.11, 189.93 kg ha-1 respectively), Ca, Mg and Si (283.56, 43.89 mg kg-1and 43.64 kg ha-1 respectively) were significantly highest in p3n3 (100% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag). The chlorophyll content at 30 DAS showed no significant variation among the treatments whereas at 60 DAS it was found to be significantly higher in p3n3 (3.04 mg g-1). Dehydrogenase enzyme activity at 60 DAS was significantly higher in p3n3 (54.98 μg TPF g-1soil-1d-1) and it was found to be comparable with p2n3 (54.97 μg TPF g-1soil- 1d-1) and p3n2 (54.81 μg TPF g-1soil-1d-1). Among different treatment combinations p3n3 recorded significantly higher bacterial and fungal count (7.75 and 5.34 log cfu g-1 respectively). In bacterial count it was found to be on par with p2n3 (7.76 log cfu g-1), whereas in fungal count it was on par with p1n3 (5.31 log cfu g-1). Economics of the study revealed that although gross income was higher (1,41,825 ₹ ha⁻¹) in p3n3 (100% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag), the higher net income (45,600 ₹) and BC ratio (1.48) were achieved with p2n3 (50% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag). From the experiment it was concluded that application of 50% Recommended Dose of Phosphorus along with 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag proved to be equally effective as 100% RDP + 5 t ha⁻¹ nano slag in enhancing crop growth, yield, and profitability of aerobic rice. Nano slag produced from industrial waste slag also substituted the entire lime requirement for aerobic rice enhancing soil pH, nutrient availability and supply of Si and micronutrients such as Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn.Item Nanoemulsion of wild ginger (Zingiber zerumbet(L.) Smith) essential oil for postharvest management in Banana(Department of Postharvest Management, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2026) Anandhu PrakashEssential oils (EOs) are potent natural antimicrobials and antioxidants, but their practical application in food preservation is often limited by high volatility, poor water solubility, and susceptibility to degradation. Wild ginger (Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith), a rich source of bioactive EO, presents a promising yet underutilised natural resource. Simultaneously, climacteric fruits such as banana (Musa spp. cv. Nendran) suffer from rapid ripening and significant postharvest losses. Nanoemulsification of EO is an advanced strategy to enhance stability, dispersibility, and controlled release, thereby increasing efficacy. The present study was carried out at the Department of Postharvest Management, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, during 2023-2025, aimed to chemically profile Z. zerumbet EO, optimise a stable sodium alginate-based essential oil nanoemulsion (EONE) using ultrasonication, and evaluate its efficacy as a postharvest coating to extend the shelf life of banana cv. Nendran. In the first experiment, the hydro-distilled EO from Z. zerumbet rhizomes was chemically profiled and compared with cultivated ginger (Zingiber officinale cv. Varada). Z. zerumbet produced a significantly higher EO yield (3.3 ± 0.18%) than Z. officinale (1.6 ± 0.07%). and demonstrated significantly stronger antioxidant activity in the DPPH assay (IC50 value of 1476 ± 103.62 μg/mL compared to 5093.33 ± 166.57 μg/mL). Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis identified 61 compounds in Z. zerumbet EO, with the major constituents being Zerumbone (32.46%), Camphene (14.88%), α-Humulene (6.49%), and Camphor (6.69%). In contrast, the analysis of Z. officinale EO identified 97 compounds, with a distinctly different profile, predominantly composed of Zingiberene (22.81%), β-Sesquiphellandrene (11.69%), Camphene (7.30%), and α-Curcumene (6.47%). Following the chemical screening, the Z. zerumbet EO was encapsulated in a sodium alginate-based nanoemulsion to develop a stable delivery system. The synthesis was optimised using a Response Surface Methodology (RSM) approach to evaluate the effects of three independent variables: essential oil concentration (1-5%), surfactant concentration (1-5%), and sonication time (5-15%). The optimisation was based on achieving the minimum particle size and polydispersity index (PDI). The experimental runs yielded particle sizes ranging from a highly desirable 10.6 nm to a non-nano 4339 nm. Statistical analysis revealed that surfactant concentration was the most significant factor (p=0.0091) influencing the PDI. The optimal formulation, derived from Run 15, was identified as 1% essential oil, 5% surfactant, and a sonication time of 10 minutes. This combination successfully produced a stable, translucent NE with the smallest mean particle size (10.76 nm) and an excellent, low PDI of 0.1845, indicating a uniform and monodisperse system suitable for application. In the final experiment, the optimised EONE (T1) was applied as a postharvest coating to banana cv. Nendran and compared with a coarse emulsion (EOE, T2), a chemical check (0.1% Carbendazim, T3), and an untreated control (T4), all stored at ambient conditions. The untreated control fruits ripened and perished by day 11, whereas the EONE maintained marketability up to 14 days. T1 demonstrated a delayed ripening process (maintaining a 'Light Yellowish Green' stage until day 12, T4 turned 'Vivid Yellow' by day 5). T1-treated fruits showed the lowest physiological loss in weight (10.18 ± 0.90%) and total soluble solids (25.35 °Brix) by day 12. In contrast, all other treatments either perished or had TSS levels over 30 °Brix. The EONE effectively reduced disease incidence, maintaining a disease severity index (DSI) of 10.62 % on day 10 compared with 43.94 % (T2) and 62.71 % (T4). In sensory evaluations on the final day, T1 received the highest total score (56.90), with superior texture (8.80) and taste (8.50), while the control (24.50) was rated unacceptable. This study demonstrated that an optimised sodium alginate-based nanoemulsion of Z. zerumbet EO is a highly effective postharvest treatment. It successfully extended the shelf life of bananas, preserved the fruit's physiological and biochemical quality by delaying ripening, and reducing water loss. This research offers a viable and effective natural alternative to synthetic preservatives for mitigating postharvest losses in bananasItem Herbicidal management of stem hemiparasite Dendrophthoe spp. in mango orchards(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025) Revathi, C; Prameela, PDendrophthoe falcata (Loranthus), a stem hemiparasite of the Loranthaceae family, is a problematic weed in tree crops, including mango. Manual removal of this parasitic weed is the common practice, often involving cutting the infested tree branches. However, it is labour- intensive, often ineffective, and requires repeated intervention due to persistent sub-epidermal haustoria. Even herbicidal sprays for selective control are not available, and use of conventional spraying methods often results in toxicity to the host. Recent technologies such as air-assisted and electrostatic sprayers offer low-volume and target-specific applications with improved canopy penetration and more efficacy. Under this background a study entitled “Herbicidal management of stem hemi-parasite Dendrophthoe spp. in mango orchards” was carried out at the College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, from October 2024 to September 2025 with the objectives, to assess the efficacy of various herbicides against Dendrophthoe spp. and to evaluate sprayers that can enhance the application efficiency of herbicides for effective management of loranthus. The experiment was carried out on 20-25-year-old mango trees in College Orchard that had been infested with Dendrophthoe falcata for 8-10 years. Treatments were 2,4-D Na salt 80% WP (5 g/L), 2,4-D amine 58% SL (10 mL/L), 2,4-D Na salt (5 g/L) + CuSO₄ (20 g/L), glufosinate ammonium 13.5% SL (10 mL/L), metribuzin 70% WP (5 g/L), ethrel 39% SL (25 mL/L), and metsulfuron methyl 20% WP (0.4 g/L) as targeted foliar sprays. Basal banding (padding) of 2,4-D Na salt (2%) and metribuzin (2%) was also included along with manual removal and unsprayed check. Phytotoxicity symptoms on the parasite and host were observed. In loranthus, changes in biochemical and physiological parameters, nutrient content of leaves, and regrowth up to one year after treatment were assessed. Four types of sprayers, i.e., battery-powered hydraulic, air-assisted, electrostatic, and air compression sprayers, were evaluated by comparing deposition efficiency, weed control efficacy, spray volume requirement, and cost of weed control in order to identify the most efficient technology for targeted herbicide delivery to loranthus clusters. Among the herbicides, though ethrel induced the fastest response through leaf abscission of parasitic weed by two days after spraying (DAS), total control was not obtained and regrowth started by 40 DAS. In metsulfuron methyl sprayed treatments regrowth started by 60 days, while metribuzin sprayed loranthus showed regrowth by 40 days. Foliar application of 2,4-D Na salt and 2,4-D amine provided the most effective and prolonged suppression without any regrowth even up to one year, which indicated complete drying of the parasite without any adverse effect on the host. Manual removal failed to suppress regrowth beyond 3 months. Herbicidal sprays markedly impaired leaf metabolism too. A drastic reduction in total soluble sugars (from 15.26 to 7.63 mg/g), protein (2.28 to 1.79 mg/g), relative leaf water content (50 to 11%), membrane stability (56 to 26%), and chlorophyll (1.64 to 0.92 mg/g) was observed. The NPK content in loranthus leaves also showed a sharp decline. These effects were linked to oxidative stress, disrupted carbohydrate translocation, and accelerated chlorophyll degradation. In contrast, padding with 2,4-D Na salt and metribuzin maintained higher physiological and biochemical values, indicating localized action with minimal systemic translocation and hence ineffectiveness. Significant variation was observed in droplet deposition efficiency among sprayer types, with electrostatic sprayers having the highest deposition (30.5 μL/cm²), followed by air- assisted (12.63 μL/cm²), battery-powered hydraulic (10.0 μL/cm²), and air-compression sprayers (7.23 μL/cm²). Advanced spraying technologies, particularly electrostatic and air- assisted sprayers, reduced spray volume requirement to nearly one-tenth of that used by conventional sprayers. Interestingly, a comparison between droplet deposition rate and weed control efficiency of battery-powered hydraulic and electrostatic sprayers revealed an inverse relationship, wherein higher deposition did not lead to enhanced herbicidal activity. This discrepancy is attributable to the parameters such as spray volume, droplet size, and lethal dose necessary for effective herbicide performance, ensuring adequate wetting, absorption, and translocation to facilitate metabolic action within the host-parasite system. It can be concluded that targeted foliar application of 2,4-D Na salt (80% WP) @5 g/L or 2,4-D amine (58% SL) @10 mL/L, using battery-powered hydraulic sprayer, is an effective method to manage Dendrophthoe infestation in mango orchardsItem Micronutrients and biostimulants for crop management in marigold (Tagetes erecta L.)(Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025) Aparna, M Rajeev; Resmi PaulInvestigations on “Micronutrients and biostimulants for crop management in marigold (Tagetes erecta L.)” was undertaken at the Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara during 2024 to 2025. Objectives of the study were to evaluate the influence of micronutrients, biostimulants, and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on the growth, yield, and quality attributes of African marigold. Studies were carried out in the hybrid Royal Orange. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design comprising of ten treatments with three replications each, involving combined application of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF), boron (1 kg ha⁻¹), varying concentrations of humic acid (1%, 3%, and 5%), salicylic acid (50, 100, and 150 ppm), and PGPR Mix I and II (2% and 5%). Treatments were applied through soil application, foliar spray, soil drenching, and root dipping at different growth stages of the plants. Vegetative, floral, and biochemical parameters of the plants and soil nutrient characteristics of the experimental plot were studied. Significant variations among treatments were observed for all the traits studied except for the shelf life of flowers. Among the treatments, application of 5% humic acid along with RDF and boron (T5) recorded significant improvement in plant height (46.25 cm), plant spread (29.29 cm), number of branches per plant (15.67), and leaf count (15.5 per branch). This treatment also resulted in the highest fresh (464 g and 64 g respectively) and dry (95 g and 29 g respectively) shoot and root biomass, indicating enhanced nutrient absorption and root development. The same treatment (T5) also advanced the onset of flowering, with the earliest bud emergence (31.67 days) and 50% flowering (31.83 days), while the control treatment (RDF alone) showed delayed flowering (41.08 days). Floral attributes such as number of flowers per plant (18.67), flower diameter (6.03 cm), individual flower weight (8.8 g), and flower yield per plant (159.93 g) were also maximized in T5 (RDF + boron + 5% humic acid), followed by treatments with RDF + boron + PGPR (T9 and T10) and RDF + boron + salicylic acid (150 ppm) (T8). The duration of flowering (71.08 days) and field life of flowers (7.58 days) were prolonged under T5 (RDF + boron + 5% humic acid), reflecting improved physiological activity. Biochemical analysis revealed that treatments consisting of RDF + boron + salicylic acid and RDF + boron + PGPR improved biochemical composition of leaves and flowers. The treatment with RDF + boron + 150 ppm salicylic acid (T8) exhibited highest chlorophyll a (1.313 mg g⁻¹ FW), chlorophyll b (1.295 mg g⁻¹ FW), and total chlorophyll (2.61 mg g⁻¹ FW), suggesting improved photosynthetic efficiency. PGPR Mix II (5%), along with RDF and boron (T10), significantly increased phenolic (21.78 mg GAE/g and 54.23 mg GAE/g respectively) and flavonoid (0.307 mg QE/g and 4.51 mg QE/g respectively) contents in leaves and flowers, and carotenoid content (0.051 mg/g FW) in flowers, indicating higher antioxidant potential and stress tolerance. Nutrient uptake studies indicated that plants which received RDF + boron + 5% humic acid (T5) exhibited superior uptake of nitrogen (3.04 g plant⁻¹), phosphorus (0.238 g plant⁻¹), iron (0.219 g plant⁻¹), and zinc (0.029 g plant⁻¹). Potassium uptake was not significantly correlated with yield, suggesting that other nutrients played a more decisive role in flower production. Soil analysis after harvest of flowers showed improved macronutrient and micronutrient availability in plots receiving RDF + boron + PGPR and RDF + boron + biostimulants. Correlation studies demonstrated that yield per plant had a significant positive association with key vegetative and floral traits such as plant spread, number of branches and flowers, flower diameter and weight, duration of flowering, and total chlorophyll content, while being negatively correlated with the number of days to bud emergence and 50% flowering. Similarly, flower yield showed significant positive correlations with the uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, manganese, zinc, and boron, underscoring the role of balanced nutrition in the enhancement of productivity. Combined use of micronutrients and biostimulants improved growth, yield and quality attributes of African marigold. Integrated application of RDF + boron + humic acid (5%) enhanced the overall growth, yield and floral characteristics of African marigold. The use of RDF + boron + salicylic acid proved beneficial in enhancing chlorophyll content, flower longevity, and stress resilience, whereas RDF + boron + PGPR combinations improved secondary metabolite accumulation, contributing to superior flower colour and quality. Combinations and concentrations of micronutrients and biostimulants along with RDF identified in the present study could be utilized in further investigations.Item Water stress mitigation in upland rice through bacterial seed priming(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2025) Jinsiya Jabin, E KThe study entitled ‘Water stress mitigation in upland rice through bacterial seed priming’ was conducted at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during 2023-2025. The objective of the study was to assess the influence of bacterial seed priming on upland rice under different levels of moisture stress during summer taken up as lab study, pot culture and field experiment. in vitro screening of beneficial bacteria for imparting drought tolerance in rice variety Prathyasa was conducted by a roll-towel assay laid out in completely randomized design (CRD) with 6×4 treatments, replicated four times. The factors were biopriming (b0- without biopriming, b1- B. pumilus VLY 17, b2- B. amyloliquefaciens VLY 24, b3- B. velezensis PCSE 10, b4- consortium and b5- hydropriming) and moisture stress levels (m₀ – without stress, m₁ – PEG 6000 at 5% (mild stress), m₂ – PEG 6000 at 10% (moderate stress), and m₃ – PEG 6000 at 20% (severe stress).The seeds were primed by soaking in respective bacterial cultures at concentration of 108 CFU mL-1 for 12 hours followed by shade drying. Both biopriming and moisture stress levels significantly influenced the germination indices, root parameters and growth attributes of rice seedlings. Under moderate stress, germination percentage and shoot length were significantly higher when bioprimed with B. pumilus, B. amyloliquefaciens, and the bacterial consortium; and were superior to the unprimed control. However, under severe stress, seeds primed with B. pumilus recorded the highest root-to-shoot ratio compared to the unprimed and hydroprimed control. The second experiment was a pot culture on ‘Screening of beneficial bacteria for drought tolerance in rice’ for identifying the most effective bacterial culture conferring drought tolerance. The experiment was laid out in CRD with two factors viz., biopriming (b0-without biopriming, b1 - B. pumilus, b2 - B. amyloliquefaciens, b3 - B velezensis, b4- consortium) and irrigation intervals [i1 - irrigated to field capacity, i₂ - irrigation completely withdrawn at 40 days after sowing (DAS)] with the rice variety Prathyasa. Seed primed with B. pumilus produced the tallest plants (85.22 cm at 60 DAS), the highest number of leaves (16.08 at 50 DAS) and dry matter production (39.23 g per plant at 50 DAS). At 50 DAS and 60 DAS, the highest rooting depth (27.65 and 32.48 cm), root volume (14.25 and 16.01 cm³), and root dry weight (13.25 and 16.29 g) were observed in B. pumilus primed plants, outperforming the unprimed control under complete irrigation withdrawal at 40 DAS. Lower malondialdehyde content, and the highest superoxide dismutase activity at 60 DAS were also noted in plants primed with B. pumilus. Based on PCA with a cut-off score of 0.75, B. pumilus was identified as the promising bioinoculant for priming and was subsequently selected for field validation under different levels of moisture stress. A field experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with 2 × 2 × 2 treatments replicated thrice, with the upland rice variety Prathyasa during March to June 2025. The factors included biopriming (b₀-without biopriming and b₁-with B. pumilus), irrigation interval (i₁ - at 30 mm CPE and i₂ - at 40 mm CPE), and depth of irrigation (d₁ -to a depth of 1.5 cm and d₂ - to a depth of 3.0 cm). The stress levels were categorized as ideal (i1d2), moderate (i2d2), severe (i1d1) and extremely severe (i2d1). The crop was raised as per KAU Package of Practices Recommendations for short-duration rice. Among the growth parameters, B. pumilus priming resulted in the tallest plants (83.47 cm), highest leaf area index (2.78) at 60 DAS, and the highest dry matter accumulation (3538 kg ha⁻¹) at harvest under extremely severe moisture stress compared to the control. Plants of bioprimed seeds produced the highest productive tillers (198.53 m⁻²), grains per panicle (82.33), grain yield (2163 kg ha⁻¹), and straw yield (2445 kg ha⁻¹), along with the lowest spikelet sterility (16.03%) under severe moisture stress, outperforming the unprimed control. Under extremely severe moisture stress, plants of bioprimed seeds recorded the highest proline content (90.04 and 65.08 μg g⁻¹ FW), and the highest relative leaf water content (78.93 and 73.70%) at panicle initiation (PI) and flowering, respectively, compared to the unprimed control. Similarly, under moderate stress, plants of bioprimed seeds maintained the highest cell membrane stability index and chlorophyll stability index at PI and flowering, respectively. Bioprimed plants exhibited the highest water use efficiency and water productivity at all stress levels compared to the unprimed control. They recorded the highest nutrient uptake under extremely severe stress, with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium uptake values of 51.75 kg ha⁻¹, 11.45 kg ha⁻¹, and 85.12 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. The study identified seed biopriming with the bacterial isolate Bacillus pumilus VLY 17 as an effective strategy for mitigating moisture stress in upland rice during summer as assessed based on growth, yield, physiological parameters and water-use efficiency.Item Characterization of selected exotic jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) varieties(Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2025) Neha, A R; Bindu, BThe study entitled ‘Characterization of selected exotic jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) varieties’ was conducted at the Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram, from November 2024 to July 2025. Fifteen exotic jackfruit varieties were identified from South Kerala, covering the districts of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, and Kottayam. No systematic study has been conducted so far regarding the evaluation and morphological characterization of exotic jackfruit varieties under Kerala conditions. Keeping this in view, the present study is proposed with the aim of morphological characterization and evaluation of selected exotic jackfruit varieties grown in South Kerala. Observations were recorded on quantitative, qualitative, biochemical and organoleptic parameters. A preliminary survey was conducted in various locations across Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, and Kottayam districts to identify exotic jackfruit varieties. The preparations included contacting KVKs, research stations, various private and public nurseries and contacting farmers in order to collect information regarding the same. A traditional variety popular in Kerala, Muttom Varikka, was taken as control in order to compare the differences in characters with the exotic varieties. Seven of the exotic varieties were collected from Kollam, six from Thiruvananthapuram and each from Alappuzha and Kottayam district. Field observations for the selected exotic varieties were conducted by documenting the morphological characteristics of the tree, leaves, inflorescences, fruits, seeds, and other contributing traits, following the IPGRI (2000) descriptor for jackfruit. The incidence of pests, diseases, and other physiological disorders were also monitored and recorded. Regarding the important qualitative characters, most of the exotic varieties exhibited an irregular crown shape (40.00%) and irregular branching pattern (53.33%). All the exotic varieties were regular bearers, with 66.66% of them being early-bearing. Considerable variations were observed in qualitative, quantitative and biochemical characters of exotic varieties. Among the varieties, 26.66% exhibited a twisted flake shape, 20% each displayed obovate and rectangular shapes, 13.33% had an irregular shape, and 6.66% each showed spheroid and cordate forms. 86.66% of the exotic varieties were sweet in taste, while 13.33% of them were insipid. Most of the varieties had yellow pulp color (40 %), followed by light yellow (33.33%), followed by coppery red (20 %) and creamy white (6.66%). An agglomerative hierarchical clustering was performed using 12 yield contributing quantitative parameters. The analysis classified the varieties into three clusters according to the similarities of these traits. The clustering results showed that the elite varieties with desirable traits were predominantly found in Cluster III. An agglomerative hierarchical clustering based on biochemical analysis was conducted using eight key biochemical traits that contribute to yield. The analysis classified the varieties into two clusters according to the similarities in these traits. The results indicate that the elite varieties with desirable characteristics were grouped in Cluster II. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed using ten quantitative characters contributing to yield, including fruit length (FRL), fruit diameter (FRD), fruit weight (FRW), flake length (FLL), flake width (FLW), weight of flakes per kg of fruit (WFPKF), weight of fresh flake without seed (WFFWS), flake to fruit ratio (FFR), flake to seed ratio (FSR) and yield per tree (YPT). The PCA biplot results show that FFR, FRW, FRL, and FLL contribute positively to PC1. Gumless, White Jack, Red Jack, Thailand Red, J 33, and Dang Surya are found to have high values for these parameters. Similarly, FSR and YPT contribute positively to PC2 while FLW contributes negatively to PC2. Vietnam Super Early, Seedless are found to have high values for FSR but low values for FRL, FRD, FRW and FLW. Among the quantitative characters, J 13 had the longest fruit (57 cm), White Jack had the largest diameter (84.10 cm) and heaviest weight (14 kg). White Jack had the highest weight of flakes per kg of fruit (876 g), and Red Jack had the highest weight of fresh flake without seed (29 g). White Jack had the longest flake (8.50 cm) and the widest flake was present in Red Jack (11.10 cm). The highest yield per tree was recorded in the Gumless variety (326.80 kg). The traditional variety, Muttom Varikka taken as control, exhibited a fruit weight of 7 kg, fruit length of 58 cm, and fruit diameter of 70.50 cm. PCA on biochemical parameters was carried out based on Total Soluble Sugars (TSS), acidity (AY), TSS-acidity ratio (TAR), ascorbic acid (AA), reducing sugars (RS), non-reducing sugars (NRS), total sugars (TS) and total carotenoids (TC). The PCA biplot shows that TSS, TS, TAR, RS and AA have positive contributions to PC1 while AY has a negative contribution to PC1. Exotic varieties such as J 33, Pink Jack, Dang Surya, Thailand Red and Cambodian Orange have higher values for TSS, TS, TAR, RS and AA, whereas J13, Seedless, Thailand Pink and Vietnam Early have higher values of AY. TSS peaked for the J33 variety (40.7 ºBrix) while maximum acidity was found in Thailand Pink and J13 varieties (0.64%). Vietnam Red and Pink Jack exhibited the least acidity (0.21). Pink Jack variety had the highest TSS-acidity ratio (167.62), followed by Vietnam Red (121.90) and ascorbic acid content was high in White Jack (20.19 mg/100g). Among the biochemical parameters, J33 had the highest percentage of non-reducing sugar (11.38 %) as well as total sugars (17.92%) and the Red Jack variety had the highest total carotenoid content (4430.13 μg/100g). For the identification of elite varieties based on the parameters, scoring was given based on the economic characters like tree vigour, fruit weight, pulp colour, flake to fruit ratio, TSS, acidity, carotenoid content, flake to seed ratio, number of fruits per tree and yield per tree. The elite exotic jack fruit varieties identified based on the study were Vietnam Super Early, J33, Thailand Red, Red Jack, Gumless, Cambodian Orange and Dang Surya. These elite varieties were compared with the traditional control variety, Muttom Varikka. The PCA analysis with traditional as well as selected elite varieties were done on 15 yield contributing quantitative and biochemical factors: fruit length (FRL), fruit diameter (FRD), fruit weight (FRW), flake length (FLL), flake width (FLW), weight of flakes per kg of fruit (WFPKF), weight of fresh flake without seed (WFFWS), flake to fruit ratio (FFR), flake to seed ratio (FSR), yield per tree (YPT), Total Soluble Sugars (TSS), acidity (AY), TSS- acidity ratio (TAR), ascorbic acid (AA), reducing sugars (RS), non-reducing sugars (NRS), total sugars (TS) and total carotenoids (TC). The PCA biplot showed that the traditional variety had comparatively higher values for FFR, WFPKF, FLL, FRL, FRD, while other parameters were found in higher values in exotic varieties. The organoleptic assessment of the flake was done using a hedonic scale rating, ranging from 1 (indicating poor quality) to 9 (representing excellent quality), and underwent statistical analysis using Kendall's and Kruskal-Wallis tests. Red Jack had the highest rank for appearance (8.6), Dang Surya scored the highest for colour (8.8), Dang Surya and Thailand Red had the highest score for flavor (9). Texture scores were highest for Dang Surya (8.4). J33 scored 9 for taste. Overall acceptability scores were highest for Thailand Red and J33. Overall assessment revealed that exotic jackfruit varieties, Vietnam Super Early, J33, Thailand Red, Red Jack, Gumless, Cambodian Orange and Dang Surya were identified as elite types. The results of the study showed significant variation in both quantitative and qualitative traits, as well as biochemical and organoleptic parameters among the different exotic varieties. The findings indicate that exotic jackfruit varieties possess distinct advantages over traditional types, particularly in yield potential and fruit quality attributes. Further exploration and utilization of these varieties is essential for identifying superior genotypes, promoting commercial cultivation, conserving promising varieties, developing value-added products, and improving the economic potential of exotic jackfruit varieties.Item Dynamics and volatility transmission of tea prices:implication for small tea growers in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2025-12-22) Anandhu,STea (Camellia sinensis, f: Theaceae) is an important plantation crop that originated in the borderlands of China, India and Burma. It is a perennial tropical crop that requires high elevations and a humid climate. Globally, major producers of tea are China, India, Sri Lanka and Kenya, where China is the leading producer followed by India. In India, tea plantations were established during the colonial period and are cultivated mainly in Assam and West Bengal in the North and Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the South. This study mainly focuses on Kerala, which is the second largest tea producer in South India. In India, tea is cultivated by Small Tea Growers (STGs) who cultivate on a land area of less than 25 acres and big tea growers who cultivate on much larger area. Usually, the leaves harvested by STGs are sold either through intermediaries or directly to the auction centres. However, the tea industry faces persistent challenges, among which price volatility is the most critical one faced by growers, especially STGs. Price instability has profound implications for STGs, who are highly vulnerable to income fluctuations due to limited capital and market access. Volatile prices affect their economic welfare and contribute to long-term uncertainty in the sector. Accordingly, this study was done with the following objectives: (a) to analyse the volatility and transmission of tea prices, (b) to assess the impact of price fluctuations on the welfare of STGs, and (c) to identify suitable forecasting models for predicting tea prices. Data on area, production, productivity and annual auction prices were collected from the Tea Board of India, Indian Tea Association and international sources, and primary data were collected through field survey from 200 STGs across Idukki and Wayanad districts of Kerala. In order to analyse the effect of trade liberalisation on the area, production, productivity and auction prices, the data were segmented into two groups, i.e., pre-liberalisation period (1980-2000), post-liberalisation period (2001- 2024) and the overall period (1980-2024). Analytical tools included growth and instability models like Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) per cent per annum, Cuddy-Della Valle Index (CDVI) and Coefficient of Variation (CV). Decomposition analysis was done using Hazell’s decomposition model. The ARMA-APARCH model was employed for the estimation of volatility persistence, and Johansen’s cointegration (ii) and Granger causality tests were used for price transmission analysis. In order to study the influence of price volatility on the welfare of STGs, econometric models such as Propensity Score Matching (PSM), Augmented Inverse Probability Weighting (AIPW), and Inverse Probability Weighted Regression Adjustment (IPWRA) were used. To identify the best forecasting model, traditional time-series models (ARIMA, SARIMA), regression models (Linear, SVR, GBR and RFR), deep learning techniques (RNN and LSTM), and hybrid combinations (ARIMA-LSTM and ARIMA-GARCH) were evaluated based on statistical performance metrics including RMSE, MSE, MAE, MAPE and R2 and residual diagnostic tests. In North India, the CAGR of area, production, and productivity showed a steady increase in both pre- and post-liberalisation periods. In South India, however, the growth rates declined after liberalisation, with slower expansion in area and productivity. In both regions, growth in annual auction prices decreased after trade reforms. In North India, instability in area, production, and productivity increased after liberalisation. In contrast, South India experienced a decrease in instability during the post-liberalisation period. In both regions, instability in annual auction prices reduced after liberalisation. In Kerala, the growth rate in area was very low, such that it could not be offset by a marginal increase in productivity. This resulted in much lower growth in production. The decomposition analysis revealed that the price effect contributed the most to the variation in tea income across all regions. The trend analysis revealed a significant positive and consistent upward movement in monthly auction prices for both North and South India. The seasonal analysis revealed distinct intra-year price movements in both regions, with North Indian prices showing stronger seasonality. Cyclicality was more evident in North Indian tea prices, showing longer and sharper price cycles driven by market demand and production adjustments. In contrast, South Indian prices showed shorter, milder cycles. In North India, volatility persistence (β) was present in the pre- liberalisation period, indicating strong clustering of shocks, whereas it increased after liberalisation, showing the influence of increased trade activity in North India after implementing the trade reforms. The overall period also reflected a considerable persistence level, confirming that liberalisation increased long-term volatility persistence in North Indian tea prices. Volatility persistence in South India declined (iii) notably from the pre-liberalisation to the post-liberalisation period, indicating quicker dissipation of price shocks after trade reforms. Compared with North India, South Indian prices showed lower overall persistence and weaker volatility clustering, suggesting a more stable and less reactive market environment. Price transmission between markets was stronger in North India, showing greater integration with both domestic and international markets, while South Indian markets exhibited weaker linkages. In the post-liberalisation period, transmission improved significantly in both regions, reflecting enhanced market connectivity and faster price adjustments. The Granger causality test revealed bidirectional causality among the domestic and international markets before and after liberalisation. During the post-liberalisation period, causal linkages strengthened such that overall, this confirmed improved price transmission and greater interdependence between domestic and global tea markets. In both Idukki and Wayanad, labour costs constituted the major share of the total cost. The cost of cultivation was higher in Idukki (₹2,44,551 ha⁻¹) than in Wayanad (₹2,15,567 ha⁻¹), mainly due to greater labour use. However, Wayanad achieved higher gross returns and a higher benefit-cost ratio compared to Idukki. This was because in Wayanad, the sample STGs followed organic cultivation method and sold the tea leaves at a higher fixed price. In Idukki, the tea leaves were sold through intermediaries, while in Wayanad, it was sold directly to the Bought Leaf Factory (BLF). Marketing efficiency was notably higher in Wayanad (5.94%) than in Idukki (1.82%) due to the absence of intermediaries in Wayanad. The wider price spread and higher marketing margin in Idukki indicate reduced producer share and lower overall efficiency compared to Wayanad. Constraints in tea cultivation were analysed using the Garrett ranking technique. It was found that the most critical constraint identified in Idukki was price volatility, followed by issues like high wage rates and climate change. The most severe issue in Wayanad was labour shortage, followed by disease and pest incidence. Welfare of the STGs was analysed using PSM, AIPW and IPWRA. It was found that on average, the annual household consumption expenditure reduces by Rs. 22,916 to Rs. 34,661. Income inequality was analysed using the Gini coefficient and the Lorenz curve. It was found that there were significant inequalities between the STGs in Idukki and Wayanad districts in terms of their gross annual income. (iv) The forecasting modelling demonstrated that while classical models like ARIMA and SARIMA captured linear trends effectively, they failed to model complex nonlinear dependencies inherent in tea price data. Deep learning models, particularly LSTM, outperformed traditional methods, and the ARIMA–LSTM hybrid model achieved the highest accuracy. For both North Indian and South Indian price series, the ARIMA-LSTM hybrid achieved the lowest RMSE and best overall predictive accuracy, outperforming both traditional and machine-learning approaches. This finding underscores the potential of combining statistical and machine learning approaches for improved predictive performance in agricultural commodity markets. From the study, it was revealed that STGs in Idukki who faced price volatility had a welfare reduction in consumption expenditure ranging from Rs. 22,916 to Rs. 34,661 per year. This indicates the need for intervention in price stabilisation. It was also found that the cost of production per kg was Rs. 22 in Idukki. So, whenever the price falls below the minimum cost of production, especially during peak production months, the government may provide a Price Deficiency Payment (PDP), which could also be observed in the case of other plantation crops like rubber. Based on the empirical evidence, the study recommends providing financial aid for the establishment of cooperative and SHG-based bought-leaf factories (BLFs) to ensure fair pricing and reduce dependence on private intermediaries. The development of a digital market intelligence platform integrating real-time price data, predictive analytics, and advisory services would empower growers to make better marketing decisions. Additionally, the study advocates promoting crop diversification, which helps to mitigate the risk of the STGs. The results emphasise that trade liberalisation and technological integration have enhanced market connectivity but simultaneously exposed domestic producers to external price shocks. Strengthening institutional mechanisms, ensuring access to reliable price information, and encouraging cooperative market structures can mitigate risks and enhance sustainability. The research contributes to the academic understanding of price dynamics in perennial crops and provides actionable insights for policymakers, emphasising that managing volatility through predictive modelling and institutional innovation is key to securing the livelihood of smallholders. In conclusion, the study affirms that effective price stabilisation policies, digital forecasting tools, and (v) cooperative empowerment are vital for achieving inclusive growth in Kerala’s tea sector. By integrating advanced econometric techniques with machine learning models, this research not only enriches the literature on agricultural price volatility but also provides a policy-relevant framework for ensuring the long-term viability and economic security of STGs in volatile global commodity markets.