PG Thesis
Permanent URI for this collectionhttp://localhost:4000/handle/123456789/2
Browse
112 results
Search Results
Item Social and technological innovations for quality improvement :the case of small tea growers in south India(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2026) Janani, RTea cultivation continues to be one of the most significant sources of livelihood in the Western Ghat regions of South India, particularly in the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu and Wayanad of Kerala. For thousands of Small Tea Growers (STGs), it represents not only a traditional occupation but also the primary means of family income and social identity. Over the past two decades, the STG sector has been facing multiple challenges such as declining profit margins, labour shortages, increasing input costs, erratic rainfall, and fluctuating leaf prices. While the tea industry has expanded its export potential, the benefits have not reached small growers equitably. This is attributed to their limited access to technology, credit, and marketing facilities. In this context, the promotion of social and technological innovations has become essential to sustain smallholder livelihoods, enhance product quality, and strengthen the overall competitiveness of the sector. Recognising this need, the present study entitled “Social and Technological innovations for quality improvement: The case of Small Tea Growers in South India” was designed. It focused mainly on the analysis of the socio- demographic profile, current status of innovation adoption among small tea growers and its influence on their livelihood outcomes. The study was conducted in Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu and Wayanad district of Kerala, covering a total of 200 respondents (150 small tea growers and 50 extension officers). Proportionate random sampling was used for STG selection. Data were collected through personal interviews using a pre-tested semi-structured interview schedule. Analytical tools such as descriptive statistics, Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance, Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA), Mann -Whitney U Test, Kruskal-Wallis Test, and Propensity Score Matching (PSM) were used for analysis. The findings revealed that most growers belonged to the senior age group (above 50 years) with moderate education and long experience in tea cultivation. Majority owned small holdings of less than one acre and depended solely on rainfall for irrigation. Innovation adoption was moderate, with high uptake of fertilizer management (98%), shade-tree regulation (92.7%), and clonal cultivars (80.7%), while certification (0.7%) and use of digital tools (16.7%) were least adopted. Social innovations such as membership in associations (93.2%) and collective decision- making (88%) were widely practiced. Tamil Nadu growers recorded significantly higher adoption of mechanization, soil management, training participation, and digital tools compared to Kerala, owing to better institutional extension support. Innovation adoption showed a positive and significant association with livelihood outcomes. Farmers who adopted innovations achieved better financial stability, stronger social linkages, and greater confidence in farming decisions. The Propensity Score Matching analysis indicated that both socio-economic factors and innovation adoption together improved household welfare. The study also found that 79.33 per cent of growers were food secure, reflecting stable access to food and regular cash flow from tea cultivation. Tamil Nadu farmers reported slightly higher livelihood and well-being scores than those in Kerala, mainly due to stronger institutional support and frequent extension contact from Tea Board and UPASI. Among the influencing factors, annual income, occupation, area under tea, and farm machinery ownership played a major role in adoption, while age and education had a negative effect, showing that younger and economically stronger growers were more willing to take up innovations. The Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) confirmed that financial capacity and awareness together determine the level of readiness among small tea growers to adopt innovations. Although awareness about improved practices is gradually increasing, many small tea growers still face several barriers in effective adoption of innovations. The main challenges include shortage of labour during peak plucking periods, high input costs, and limited financial resources to purchase machinery or quality materials. Marketing difficulties such as dependence on middlemen and lack of collective selling arrangements also reduce farmers’ income opportunities. Moreover, the process of receiving government subsidies remains slow and complicated, with lengthy procedures and paperwork that discourage growers from applying. To address these issues, there is a need to strengthen extension services, simplify subsidy procedures, promote affordable mechanization, and ensure easier access to credit. Encouraging the participation of youth and women in tea-related activities and establishing digital marketing platforms can further enhance innovation adoption, improve product quality, and ensure better livelihood security for small tea growers in South India.Item Content analysis of malayalam farm magazine(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025) Jayakrishnan, U.Print media, like magazines, have long served as a vital instrument for disseminating knowledge, shaping public discourse, and influencing cultural and societal norms. This study, titled "Content analysis of a Malayalam farm magazine," examines the role of agricultural magazines in technology dissemination, using Kerala Karshakan—Kerala’s most widely read farm magazine—as a reference. The research was conducted across three districts (Palakkad, Kannur, and Kollam) with a sample of 90 farmers (30 respondents per district). It offers a detailed evaluation of farmers’ demographic and socio-economic profiles, content usefulness, readability of the magazine, and distribution mechanisms to assess how print media can be used to spread agricultural knowledge. The study employed a mixed-methods research design, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Data collection was conducted through semi-structured interviews with Kerala Karshakan subscribers. The analysis employed statistical tools, including frequency distribution, percentages, mean, standard deviation, and quartile deviation. Additionally, Oliver’s Readability Index (1985) was applied to assess readability. For content analysis, 36 magazine editions published between 2021 and 2023 were examined, comprising a total of 798 articles. The subscriber data indicates a largely older audience, with 75.6 per cent of respondents aged 51 or above and no participants below 35. This trend may reflect the region's demographics and the outmigration of younger residents from rural areas. Males dominate the gender distribution at 70 per cent, while females account for just 30 per cent, reflecting a disparity, even though women contribute substantially to farming. A vast majority (85.6 per cent) of respondents have more than a decade of farming experience, with no participants below five years, indicating that the survey primarily captured traditionally engaged farmers who may have been doing farming for generations. In terms of education, over half (52.2 per cent) have primary schooling, followed by high school (27.8 per cent), higher secondary (7.8 per cent), and graduates (12.2 per cent). Kerala's high literacy rate is reflected in the complete absence of illiterate respondents, while the lack of postgraduate participants points to relatively low participation in advanced education, which is quite contrary to the present youth trend. The results revealed varied levels of extension contact, with 56.7 per cent reporting moderate contact, while 21.1 per cent had low and 22.2 per cent had high interaction. These figures differ across districts, with Kannur demonstrating more effective outreach. Mass media utilization is predominantly moderate (74.4 per cent), with 16.7 per cent low and 8.9 per cent high, consistent across districts. The occupational status reveals that 57.8 per cent of respondents rely exclusively on farming, while 23.3 per cent supplement farming with business, 7.8 per cent with government jobs, and 11.1 per cent with private-sector work. Notably, no respondents identified as agricultural labourers, indicating a landowner-dominated sample that remains largely dependent on farming for income. While social participation is high (70-80 per cent), most engagement is occasional (80.96-86.96 per cent), except in Kannur, where regular engagement (19.04 per cent) surpasses other areas. Although most respondents (75.6 per cent) show high motivation, Palakkad's significant minority (24.4 per cent) with low motivation calls for focused interventions to address this regional disparity. Respondents show the strongest engagement with content on crop production (38.9 per cent), success stories (24.4 per cent), and crop protection (23.3 per cent), while demonstrating lower preference for case studies or policy-related schemes. WhatsApp dominates social media usage (84.4 per cent), while Facebook and Instagram see lower adoption (33.3 per cent and 12.2 per cent, respectively) which may be due to the easiness of using WhatsApp. Notably, 15.6 per cent report no social media activity at all. While the majority in Kollam and Kannur (over 75 per cent) consider the magazine affordable, Palakkad shows a contrast, with nearly half reporting less affordability. Timeliness of delivery varies by region, with Kannur and Kollam showing reliable service (80 per cent on-time delivery), while Palakkad lags behind at just 56.7 per cent. Accessibility favours print over digital, despite online availability, due to preferences for physical copies and limited digital literacy. Content analysis reveals that success stories (14.03 per cent), agronomy (8.40 per cent), and dairy farming (8.40 per cent) receive the most coverage, while emerging themes like sustainability (7.90 per cent) and plant protection (7.40 per cent) show growing prominence. Data reveals significant gaps in coverage, with specialized topics like apiculture (0.4 per cent) and poultry farming (0.74 per cent) receiving minimal attention. Research institutions/KVKs and agricultural officials emerge as leading contributors (16.54 per cent each), while boards represent the smallest authorship group (1.9 per cent). Space allocation shifted from text-heavy (55.22 per cent) in 2021 to image-focused (46.80 per cent) in 2022, then back to text-dominant (59.60 per cent) in 2023, indicating dynamic editorial adjustments. Advertisement space rose from 22,230 sq cm (2021) to 23,135.8 sq cm (2022), then fell significantly to 18,772 sq cm (2023), showing fluctuating trends. Technology acceptance was highest in Kannur (80 per cent) and Kollam (76.7 per cent), contrasting with Palakkad's lower adoption rate (46.7 per cent), despite an overall high acceptance rate of 67.8 per cent across districts. Readability analysis confirms a "Very Easy" category (RI = 0.186), effectively serving readers ranging from primary school to graduate education levels. The magazine uses FML Revathi font (size 11) and high-quality paper (54 gsm glazed newsprint for covers, 100 gsm Indian art paper for inner pages), enhancing readability. Policy recommendations include region-specific content, practical guides with visuals in a step-by-step manner, partnerships, strengthened distribution networks, and hybrid print-digital models with QR codes. Collaboration with research institutes, inclusion of underrepresented groups, and feedback mechanisms are emphasized to improve engagement and technology adoption.Item Urban and peri- urban agri enterprises : a multidimensional analysis of entrepreneurial potential(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025-05-29) Suhana, N; Smitha BabyUrban agriculture acts as an indicator of economic development that fosters food and nutritional security, employment, and urban ecological improvement. It is estimated that 68 per cent of the world's population and 50 per cent of the Indian population will be urbanised by 2050, such that it may project up to 400 million urbanised Indian people. Thus, dwindling resources, ecological breakdown and food scarcity could be the major challenges in urban areas towards sustainable development. Kerala, with its rapid urbanization, being a consumer state with high demand for agricultural products and limited availability of land since the late 20th century, provides substantial prospects for sustainable agri enterprises. It was in this rationale, the study was undertaken to examine the entrepreneurial potential of agri-enterprises in urban and peri-urban areas of Kerala. Entrepreneurial potential is operationalised in the study as the perceived desirability, feasibility and propensity of the enterprises in urban and peri-urban areas to evolve as a sustainable business. The study adopted an ex-post facto research design with specific objectives of assessing the entrepreneurial potential of urban and peri-urban agri enterprises in terms of social, economic, and ecological dimensions, delineating the factors affecting the entrepreneurial potential, identifying challenges and suggesting suitable strategies for the development of agripreneurship in urban and peri-urban areas. The study was conducted in the Ernakulam and Thrissur districts of Central Kerala, which were purposively selected based on the criteria that these districts have maximum urban and peri-urban populations. Samples were collected from Kochi and Thrissur corporations and nearby municipalities. Based on the data on agri enterprises that were established within the last three to ten years, 50 enterprises were selected from each district among the three major categories of agri enterprises such as value addition (20 units), mushroom enterprises (15 units) and aquaponics (15 units) to constitute a total sample size of 100. The primary data were collected using a structured interview schedule. The analysis of the socio-economic profile of urban and peri-urban agripreneurs revealed that the majority belonged to the middle age group (44%), male (63%), and the majority (57% each) had a graduation level of education and family occupation (occupational diverisification) as a combination of agri enterprise and service jobs. The majority of the agripreneurs had a medium level of social participation (80%)), training received (68%), mass media exposure (61%), extension contact (63%), annual income ranging between nine to twelve lakh Rupees (37%), entrepreneurial orientation(51%), managerial competency (65%) and economic motivation (62%). The results on socio-economic characteristics of the urban and peri-urban agri enterprises revealed that the majority had sole proprietorship (81%), and 42 per cent belonged to the category of ‘nano’ enterprises (according to MSME classification of enterprises based on investment). Most (45%) of urban and peri-urban agri enterprises have established separate setups on rented buildings. Also majority of the enterprises had an investment ranging between three lakhs to nine lakhs rupees (27%) and nine lakhs to twenty-four lakhs rupees(27%), annual turnover of up to five lakhs rupees (31%), self-finance as major source of capital (62%), engaged both family labour and hired employees (38%), partial credit availing (68%) and medium level of social contribution (73%). The majority of the urban and peri-urban agri enterprises had a medium level of scaling readiness (51%), profitability (38%), product diversification strategies (56%), marketing competence (56%), employment generation (57%), capacity utilization (56%) and ecological sustainability (84%). The results of the Principal Component Analysis to identify the significant components of entrepreneurial potential pointed out that marketing competence (4.11) had the highest weightage, which revealed that strong marketing competence enables entrepreneurs in competitive positioning, where the least weightage (1.14) gained for ecological sustainability suggested that the sustainability aspect has not emerged as a significant component of entrepreneurial potential in this study. The entrepreneurial potential index of each enterprise was computed using Principal Component Analysis. The majority of urban and peri-urban agri enterprises (66%) had a medium level of entrepreneurial potential with index (EPI) ranging from 15.93 to 56.96. Moreover, 15 per cent of them had a low level, and 19 per cent of them had a high level of EPI. The distribution of EPI of value-addition enterprises showed that the majority of the enterprises (72.5%) had a medium level of entrepreneurial potential with index ranging from 38.17 to 68.72. The majority of mushroom enterprises (63.33%) and aquaponics enterprises (53.33%) had a medium level of entrepreneurial potential. Based on the Kruskal-Wallis H test, the value-addition enterprises showed significantly higher entrepreneurial potential with the highest mean index (74.73), followed by mushroom (46.83) and aquaponics (21.87) enterprises. The results of the correlation analysis showed that there was a significant positive correlation between the entrepreneurial potential and the socio-personal, economic, and psychological factors. Factor analysis revealed that among the significant factors, the entrepreneurial potential is significantly influenced by the three categories of factors:1) entrepreneurial competence and economic drive (entrepreneurial orientation, economic motivation, managerial competency and extension contact) 2) financial factors (investment, annual turnover, annual income and asset ownership) 3) Social aspects (social participation, training received and mass media exposure). Poor market access, high cost of raw materials, risk in scaling the business, shortage of working capital and insufficient market awareness were the top-ranked challenges faced by urban and peri-urban agri enterprises. Enhancing market access through providing market promotion skills; building local partnerships for mitigating raw material costs, facilitating scaling up through financial and networking support; ensuring the availability of working capital through customized financial services; backward linkage for high-quality inputs; developing business management skills; advancing technological consultancy for product diversification and developing skilled workforce will help in the growth of agripreneurship in urban and peri-urban areas. Improvement in the entrepreneurial potential to evolve as a sustainable agri-business would largely depend upon addressing these issues and putting focused initiatives into place.Item Paddy procurement in major rice growing tracts of Kerala : an exploratory analysis(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025-02-22) Reshma Siju.; Smitha BabyThe Food Corporation of India (FCI), in collaboration with the State agencies, serves as the central organization for paddy procurement in India. FCI purchases paddy at the Minimum Support Price (MSP) set by the Government of India (GOI) to protect farmers' interests, maintain buffer stocks for national food security, and ensure the timely and affordable distribution of food grains to intended beneficiaries. Paddy procurement in India operates under two primary systems: the Centralized Procurement System, where FCI directly handles procurement, and the Decentralized Procurement (DCP) System, where State governments and their agencies manage the procurement, storage, and distribution of food grains. In Kerala, the DCP system has been in place since 2006, with the Kerala State Civil Supplies Corporation Limited (SupplyCo) serving as the State agency for paddy procurement. SupplyCo assigns private rice millers to specific regions to carry out the procurement process. These millers process the paddy into Custom Milled Rice (CMR) and deliver it to SupplyCo for distribution through the Public Distribution System (PDS). The study adopted an exploratory research design with specific objectives of assessing farmers’ perception on the effectiveness of paddy procurement, farmers’ satisfaction with the online procurement system, the role of different agencies involved in paddy procurement, and exploring the constraints in paddy procurement in the State. Palakkad and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, the leading paddy-producing regions, were purposively selected for the study. Two procurement centres with the highest procurement volumes were purposefully selected within each district. Four Panchayats were randomly chosen from these centres, resulting in sixteen Panchayats forming the study area. Ten farmers were randomly selected from each Panchayat to constitute a total sample of 160 farmers. Additionally, 20 officials were selected to examine the roles of various stakeholders involved in the procurement process. These stakeholders included the Paddy Marketing Officer (PMO), Paddy Quality Assurance Officer (PQAO), Paddy Payment Officer (PPO), Agricultural Officers (AO), mill owners or mill agents, and Padasekara Samithi members. The farmers’ perception on the effectiveness of procurement was studied using the semi structured interview schedule developed based on the scale developed for the study. The results of the study showed that the effectiveness parameters such as Price Risk Mitigation (84.16), and State Policy Intervention (86.62) gained a very high percentage score, and Market perception (74.18), institutional support (62.64), and Influence on crop choice and Decision making (74.35), had a high percentage score. The effectiveness was found to be less in relation to the procedural formalities in procurement, indicated by its very low score (39.46). This shows the various procedural glitches related to payment mechanisms, quality management aspects and lengthy and tiresome procurement process. The farmers’ satisfaction with the online procurement system was analysed using, the parameters, such as farmers’ satisfaction with the SupplyCo website and the online registration process showed a satisfaction score of 86.64 and 89.84, respectively, indicating famers’ high satisfaction with the online procurement process. Eighty five percent of farmers have done online registration through the Akshaya Centres, and fifteen percent registered on their own. The Paddy Marketing Officer (PMO) is the technical staff involved in the procurement process. The PMO plays a major role in creating awareness among the farmers about the quality of the paddy produced, conducting random inspections at fields, allotment of mills, grievances redressal between the mill agents and farmers on quality standards, and issuing of Paddy Receipt Slip (PRS). The Paddy Quality Assurances Officer (PQAO) is the staff dealing with the quality assurances of the milled rice and record maintenance at the mills. Paddy Payment Officer (PPO) authorises the payment order to individual farmers through banks, coordinating the activity between the SupplyCo head office and banks. The Agricultural Officer (AO) verifies the field and approve the applications for procurement and issues the excess yield certificate, if needed. After fixing the rejection rate by considering the quality parameters, the Mill agent collects and transports the procured paddy and supply the processed rice to NFSA godowns. Padasekhara Samithi facilitates synchronised farming, coordinates the online registration, field verification and deals with the mill agents. The constraints faced by the farmers in procurement were identified using focus group discussions and literature review. The Garrett ranking technique was used to rank the ten identified constraints based on their relevance. The major constraint identified was the absence of ready payment; the paddy in the state is procured at Rs. 28.20 per Kg, out of which the central government give Rs. 21.36 as MSP and the State provides a State Incentive Bonus of Rs. 6.70. The central government pays the state government only after the procured paddy reaches the consumers through PDS. Hence, the State government makes arrangements with banks for paying the farmers as PRS loans. Difficulty in meeting the quality standards was identified as the second major problem faced by the farmers due to the varying climaticItem Behavioural dynamics of farmers in registered seed growers programme(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture , Vellanikkara, 2025-04-22) Fathima Misla, P.; Darsana, SRegistered Seed Growers Programme (RSGP) is a formal seed system implemented in Kerala to guarantee the supply of certified rice seeds tailored to local conditions. Despite the program's longstanding presence since 2001-02, the intention of farmers to participate in or continue with the program has not been thoroughly investigated. Therefore, a study is necessary to address this knowledge gap. The specific objectives followed in the study include: assessment of the behavioural dynamics of farmers in the Registered Seed Growers Programme (RSGP) with respect to seed production, investigation of the extent of adoption of standards in seed production among the RSGP farmers, explore the determinants of performance of RSGP groups in seed production and analysis of the constraints in seed production among the stakeholders. Following expost facto research design, the study was purposively conducted in Kuzhalmannam and Kollengode blocks in Palakkad district with highest area under seed production. Farmers with a minimum 5 years of experience in RSGP were selected as respondents. Five padasekharams from Kollengode block and four padasekharams from Kuzhalmannam block with a total of 120 farmers and 30 individual seed producing farmers, constituted 150 respondents in RSGP. Additionally, one discontinued padasekharam with 30 farmers served as the control group. Twenty extension personnel were also included, bringing the total sample size as 200. Behavioural dynamics is operationalized as the efforts of farmer to continue in the RSGP programme and explored with the Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). The study measured behavioural dynamics in terms of attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and behavioural intention. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was employed to proven the appropriateness of the theoretical model. Model implicated the significant relationship of subjective norms and attitude, perceived behavioural control and attitude, perceived bahavioural control and behavioural intention. Moderator influence of scheme satisfaction on perceived behavioural control and attitude was also proved. Continuing farmers exhibited a significant difference in behavioural dynamics compared to the discontinued farmers. Adoption of seed standards among the practicing farmers were assessed using the adoption index. Results revealed that most entrusted standards ie, isolation distance, roguing and moisture content were highly adopted among farmers. More than half of the farmers (56%) were categorised under high adopter categories indicating farmer proficiency in the seed production procedures. However, special attention to be taken to enhance the adoption in nursery management (38.61%) and plant protection (37.18%) standards which were least adopted among farmers. Further significant difference was observed in the adoption level among padasekharams and individual seed producing farmers. Ordinal logistic regression derived area under seed production, adequate trainings on standard procedure, and cost of seed production as factors influencing the adoption of seed production standards. As most of the farmers under the scheme practiced within padasekharams, group performance was measured for the eight selected groups. Group performance index under seven dimensions as individual member objectives, participation culture, group participation, perceived equity, group rewards, member satisfaction and power distance were formulated Index scores indicated that enhanced rewards (0.90) and member satisfaction (0.75) would leads to higher group performance. Further performance difference was statistically proved among Padasekharams. Three factors were extracted in factor analysis as determinants of performance. The factors were named as stimulation factors, participation factors and priority factors of group performance. Major constraints of farmers and extension personnel were analyzed using Rank based quotient. The delays in procurement (94.07) and payment (78.59), shortage in skilled labour (79.70), inadequate quality of foundation seed (74.43), absence of seed testing lab in the district (87.89) were the prominent constraints of rice seed farmers in Palakkad district. Since most of the constraints expressed occur at the post production stages interventions at the institutional level are to be strengthened immediately. The major constraints of extension personnel were identified as the time consuming seed production procedures, delays and extra workload. The present study highlighted the favourable attitude towards the programme, peer pressure and ability in performing the seed production are the factors influencing farmers’ efforts to practice and continue the behaviour over the long term. Behavioural dynamics could be supplemented with the higher adoption of seed standards among farmers, measures to improve group participation and performance, and revamping existing institutional procedures. Therefore, the scheme could effectively achieve the objectives of farmer centered quality seed production in rice in the state.Item Role of social networks in climate smart adaptation strategies pineapple production: an exploratory analysis(Department of Agricultural Extension Education, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2025-01-23) Megha, A M; Smitha, SThe research work entitled “Role of social networks in climate smart adaptation strategies in pineapple production: An exploratory analysis” was conducted during the academic year 2022-24. The objectives of the study include Identify and document the climate smart adaptation strategies employed by pineapple farmers; extent of adoption of climate smart adaptation strategies among pineapple farmers; examine the heterogeneous effect of social networks on farmer’s adaptation to climate change; and assess the constraints faced by pineapple farmers in adopting climate smart adaptation strategies. The study was conducted in three districts of Kerala viz. Ernakulam, Kottayam, and Kollam. Ernakulam and Kottayam were selected due to their extensive areas under pineapple cultivation, making them important production hubs in the state. A total of 130 farmers were selected for the study, with 50 farmers each from Ernakulam and Kottayam, and 30 farmers from Kollam. The snowball sampling technique was employed for the study. The technique starts with a small group of initial respondents, who then refer additional respondent farmers, creating a network that reflects the pineapple farmers dynamics in the region. Through this method, the study aimed to gather insights and data from the pineapple farmers network, allowed for a comprehensive analysis of the objectives. Primary data were gathered through personal interviews with respondents, utilizing a pre-tested semi-structured interview schedule. The data on climate-smart adaptation strategies among pineapple farmers reveals a mixed level of adoption across various management practices. Ethrel application in hormonal management shows high adoption, with nearly all farmers recognizing its benefits. In water and nutrient management, water conservation practices are widely adopted, but modern and drip irrigation systems face challenges due to cost and technical issues, leading to lower adoption and some discontinuation. In crop and weed management, mulching is universally accepted, while intercropping and crop rotation have moderate adoption with barriers related to market and land limitations. Marketing management shows that distress sales are commonly used to manage financial risks, while market insurance has low adoption, indicating a need for better awareness and access. Export practices are fairly popular but face logistical and compliance challenges. Integrated pest management remains the least adopted, with no farmers using pest-resistant varieties or bio-control agents, and limited adoption of pest surveillance. The adoption of climate-smart adaptation strategies among pineapple farmers varies, with most farmers (36.92%) at a moderate level of adoption. A smaller portion (24.62%) shows low adoption, while only 20.77% and 17.69% of farmers have high and very high adoption levels, respectively. This distribution suggests that while there is some integration of climate-smart practices, full adoption remains limited. The findings highlight potential for increased adoption, with opportunities to encourage farmers towards higher engagement in climate-smart practices to better address climate challenges. The social network analysis of pineapple farmers in Ernakulam, Kottayam, and Kollam reveals low network density across all districts, with Kollam having the highest density at 0.093. Ernakulam and Kottayam each have 53 actors, while Kollam has 34 but maintains more active connections, indicated by 104 ties compared to Ernakulam's 165 and Kottayam's 138. Kollam has no isolates, ensuring all farmers are connected, while Ernakulam and Kottayam each have one. The average degree of connections is moderate, with Ernakulam slightly leading. Key actors in Ernakulam show high in-degree centrality, indicating a few serves as major information hubs, while out-degree centrality remains consistent across districts. Closeness centrality highlights disparities in connectivity, which may affect access to vital information for some farmers. The study was conducted in three districts of Kerala viz. Ernakulam, Kottayam, and Kollam. Ernakulam and Kottayam were selected due to their extensive areas under pineapple cultivation, making them important production hubs in the state. A total of 130 farmers were selected for the study, with 50 farmers each from Ernakulam and Kottayam, and 30 farmers from Kollam. The snowball sampling technique was employed for the study. The technique starts with a small group of initial respondents, who then refer additional respondent farmers, creating a network that reflects the pineapple farmers dynamics in the region. Through this method, the study aimed to gather insights and data from the pineapple farmers network, allowed for a comprehensive analysis of the objectives. Primary data were gathered through personal interviews with respondents, utilizing a pre-tested semi-structured interview schedule. The data on climate-smart adaptation strategies among pineapple farmers reveals a mixed level of adoption across various management practices. Ethrel application in hormonal management shows high adoption, with nearly all farmers recognizing its benefits. In water and nutrient management, water conservation practices are widely adopted, but modern and drip irrigation systems face challenges due to cost and technical issues, leading to lower adoption and some discontinuation. In crop and weed management, mulching is universally accepted, while intercropping and crop rotation have moderate adoption with barriers related to market and land limitations. Marketing management shows that distress sales are commonly used to manage financial risks, while market insurance has low adoption, indicating a need for better awareness and access. Export practices are fairly popular but face logistical and compliance challenges. Integrated pest management remains the least adopted, with no farmers using pest-resistant varieties or bio-control agents, and limited adoption of pest surveillance. The adoption of climate-smart adaptation strategies among pineapple farmers varies, with most farmers (36.92%) at a moderate level of adoption. A smaller portion (24.62%) shows low adoption, while only 20.77% and 17.69% of farmers have high and very high adoption levels, respectively. This distribution suggests that while there is some integration of climate-smart practices, full adoption remains limited. The findings highlight potential for increased adoption, with opportunities to encourage farmers towards higher engagement in climate-smart practices to better address climate challenges. The social network analysis of pineapple farmers in Ernakulam, Kottayam, and Kollam reveals low network density across all districts, with Kollam having the highest density at 0.093. Ernakulam and Kottayam each have 53 actors, while Kollam has 34 but maintains more active connections, indicated by 104 ties compared to Ernakulam's 165 and Kottayam's 138. Kollam has no isolates, ensuring all farmers are connected, while Ernakulam and Kottayam each have one. The average degree of connections is moderate, with Ernakulam slightly leading. Key actors in Ernakulam show high in-degree centrality, indicating a few serves as major information hubs, while out-degree centrality remains consistent across districts. Closeness centrality highlights disparities in connectivity, which may affect access to vital information for some farmers. The data on climate-smart adaptation strategies among pineapple farmers reveals a mixed level of adoption across various management practices. Ethrel application in hormonal management shows high adoption, with nearly all farmers recognizing its benefits. In water and nutrient management, water conservation practices are widely adopted, but modern and drip irrigation systems face challenges due to cost and technical issues, leading to lower adoption and some discontinuation. In crop and weed management, mulching is universally accepted, while intercropping and crop rotation have moderate adoption with barriers related to market and land limitations. Marketing management shows that distress sales are commonly used to manage financial risks, while market insurance has low adoption, indicating a need for better awareness and access. Export practices are fairly popular but face logistical and compliance challenges. Integrated pest management remains the least adopted, with no farmers using pest-resistant varieties or bio-control agents, and limited adoption of pest surveillance. The adoption of climate-smart adaptation strategies among pineapple farmers varies, with most farmers (36.92%) at a moderate level of adoption. A smaller portion (24.62%) shows low adoption, while only 20.77% and 17.69% of farmers have high and very high adoption levels, respectively. This distribution suggests that while there is some integration of climate-smart practices, full adoption remains limited. The findings highlight potential for increased adoption, with opportunities to encourage farmers towards higher engagement in climate-smart practices to better address climate challenges. The social network analysis of pineapple farmers in Ernakulam, Kottayam, and Kollam reveals low network density across all districts, with Kollam having the highest density at 0.093. Ernakulam and Kottayam each have 53 actors, while Kollam has 34 but maintains more active connections, indicated by 104 ties compared to Ernakulam's 165 and Kottayam's 138. Kollam has no isolates, ensuring all farmers are connected, while Ernakulam and Kottayam each have one. The average degree of connections is moderate, with Ernakulam slightly leading. Key actors in Ernakulam show high in-degree centrality, indicating a few serves as major information hubs, while out-degree centrality remains consistent across districts. Closeness centrality highlights disparities in connectivity, which may affect access to vital information for some farmers. The data outlining key constraints faced by pineapple farmers in adopting climate-smart adaptation strategies were ranked based on their perceived severity using Garrett ranking technique. The highest-ranked constraint, with a mean score of 67.93 and a Garrett value of 82, is the impact of decreased fruit weight on market prices. This suggests that reduced yield quality directly affects farmers' income, making it their top concern. The second most significant issue is the inadequate availability of labor (mean score of 58.52), followed closely by a lack of government support (mean score of 57.95). Other major challenges include insufficient agricultural subsidies and high costs of inputs needed for adaptation, ranked fourth and fifth, respectively. Lower-ranked constraints include the lack of climate-smart technologies at the field level, inadequate credit and irrigation facilities, limited access to resources, and a lack of climate information. The latter ranks last, with a mean score of 30.44, indicating that while access to climate data is valuable, it is perceived as a less immediate barrier compared to other challenges. This study highlights the essential role of social networks in advancing climate-smart adaptation strategies among pineapple farmers in Kerala, revealing both achievements and gaps in adoption. The analysis found moderate engagement in climate-smart practices, with significant potential for growth, especially in areas like pest management, irrigation, and marketing strategies. Social network analysis showed that well-connected farmer communities, like those in Kollam, facilitate better information exchange, enhancing adaptation capacity. Key barriers include high input costs, limited government support, and labor shortages. Recommendations to improve adoption include increasing access to climate-smart technologies, enhancing government support and subsidies, promoting cooperative marketing, and ensuring better access to climate information, thereby strengthening climate resilience and sustainability in pineapple farmingItem Effectiveness of online certificate courses offered by KAU center for e- learning(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture , Vellanikkara, 2024-03-01) Navitha, V N.; Mercykutty, M JThe advent of online education has revolutionized global access to specialized courses particularly through online certificate programmes and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). The study was conducted among the participants of selected online certificate courses and MOOC courses offered by Kerala Agricultural University Centre for e-learning. Three online certificate courses, organic agriculture management, plant propagation and nursery management and post-harvest management and two MOOC courses, biological pest and disease management and mushroom cultivation were selected. The study aimed to evaluate the perceived effectiveness of online certificate courses offered by the Centre for e-learning, Kerala Agricultural University. It further examined the factors influencing the enrolment and challenges faced by the participants. The study also proposed a suitable model to strengthen the courses. Specific statistical tools, such as Kruskal-Wallis test, Mann-Whitney U test, Kendall's coefficient of concordance, Factor analysis and Garrett’s ranking were employed. The study revealed positive outcomes in participant experiences across these courses. From high satisfaction scores to impacts on professional development, positive behavioural shifts and notable learning achievements, the courses stand out as transformative. Regarding the overall effectiveness, Kruskal Wallis test revealed that there were no significant differences among the three selected online certificate courses. However slight variations were observed with respect to coverage of diverse techniques, introduction of latest concepts and exposing entrepreneurship opportunities. The Mann-Whitney U test analysed the independence of observations in two MOOCs, Biological Pest and Disease Management and Mushroom Cultivation. Despite subtle differences in mean scores, the test indicated no significant distinction between the courses, showcasing the challenges of comparing virtual, contact-free learning experiences. Kendall's coefficient of concordance delved into participant’s agreement on the effectiveness of courses on specific domains. Weak to moderate agreement underscores varying perceptions, highlighting the diverse impact of courses in organic agriculture, post-harvest management, and plant propagation and nursery management. Factor analysis explored the perceived impact of online education, highlighting three significant factors, financial well-being, social and community impact and personal development and communication. These factors have contributed to a cumulative variance of 72.29 %, emphasizing multifaceted benefits. Kendall's coefficient of concordance was also applied to analyse the factors influencing enrolment in courses. Moderate agreement showed consistent prioritization of skill development, convenience, affordability, personal interest and capacity building indicating diverse participant motivations. Challenges faced by respondents for pursuing online courses were assessed using Garrett's ranking. Technical difficulties, reduced interaction, work commitments and economic challenges emerged as common concerns. The study suggested improvements and recommended the "Online Pinnacle" model, addressing communication, financial literacy, scheduling, outreach, and instructional content to elevate the quality of online education. The "Online Pinnacle" model is suggested to promote the quality and effectiveness of the courses. Key components include the facilitation of increased communication channels through online platforms and live sessions, promoting collaboration among participants. The model emphasizes the incorporation of financial management sessions by integrating an additional module with relevant case studies for practical insights. A flexible contact class schedule is also proposed to minimize disruption and cater to learners' convenience. Expanded outreach and advertisements, featuring a comprehensive marketing strategy is advised to boost course awareness. The inclusion of KAU multi-centre facilities provides more options in arranging contact classes at various centres in the state. Multi coloured illustrative self-instructional materials are recommended for enhanced engagement, while the addition of sufficient number of practical videos which align with course objectives can enrich the learning experience. Overall, the model strives for excellence in online education through stimulating learning experience by addressing the important elements.Item Perception of youth towards agriculture and allied sectors in Kerala: a multi-dimensional analysis(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2022-03-17) Pasula Sravani; Sreedaya ,G SThe study entitled “Perception of youth towards agriculture and allied sectors in Kerala: A multi-dimensional analysis” was conducted during the year 2020-2021. The objectives of the study were to assess and compare the perception of rural and urban youth towards agriculture and to inventories region-specific agricultural opportunities. The sustaining and impeding factors influencing youth to take up agriculture as their primary occupation and the strategies to enhance their involvement in agriculture were delineated. The study was conducted in ex post facto research design, in the three purposively selected districts (Most populated districts) Viz., Calicut, Ernakulam and Thiruvananthapuram. From each of the three selected districts, three rural panchayats were randomly selected and from each of the three selected panchayats five rural youth were purposively selected comprising a total sample of 45 rural youth. Fifteen youth were purposively selected from three corporation of the respective districts forming a sample size of 45 urban youth. Ten extension officials were also purposively selected from the three districts. Thus, comprising a total sample size of 120 respondents. Perception of youth towards agriculture and allied sector was the dependent variable and was measured in terms of four dimensions i.e., profit maximization, environmental disquiet, technology dimension and contentment dimension, developed for the study. Twelve independent variables were selected through judges rating and relevancy scoring. The statistical tools used were frequency, standard deviation, percentage analysis, correlation and Mann- Whitney U test. Based on analysis of data, it was noted that majority of youth (71.11%) belonged to medium level of perception and only 16.66 per cent of them were with low level of perception. Whereas, 12.23 per cent of them were having high perception towards agriculture and allied sectors. Mann- Whitney U test was conducted to compare the perception of rural and urban youth towards agriculture and it revealed that there was not much significant difference between perception of rural and urban youth towards agriculture. Among the four dimensions of perception only profit maximization 140 exhibited a significant difference between the perception of rural youth and urban youth which was assessed through Mann – Whitney U test. Majority of youth (45.55%) were in the lower young age (20-25 years),31.11 per cent of them were in the upper young age (31- 35 years) and 23.34 per cent of them were in middle young age (26-30 years). Majority of the youth (64.45%) were partially aware about agripreneurial opportunities. A large proportion of the youth (81.11%) had medium level of deferred gratification. It was also observed that most of respondents (65.55%) belonged to medium level of scientific orientation, whereas 18.88 per cent of respondents were with low level of scientific orientation. More than half of the respondents (56.67%) had a medium level of leadership quality and 22.22 per cent of them were with low leadership quality. Sixty-five point six per cent of the respondents had medium level of innovativeness and 18.47 per cent of them were with low level innovativeness. Regarding decision making ability 58.89 per cent and 22.23 per cent belonged to the medium and low levels of decision-making ability. It was revealed that 63.33 per cent of respondents belonged to the medium category of mass media exposure whereas only 20.00 per cent of them with high level of mass media exposure. It was observed that 63.34 per cent of youth had medium level of achievement motivation whereas only 23.33 of them had low level of achievement motivation. Majority of the youth (70.00%) belonged to the category of medium level of assertiveness and 68.90 per cent of the youth belonged to the medium category of risk orientation. Majority of youth (63.33%) had medium level of self-confidence and 21.12 per cent of them had high level of self confidence. It was observed that ‘scientific orientation’, ‘leadership quality’, ‘assertiveness’ and ‘mass media exposure’ were significantly correlated to the perception of youth towards agriculture and allied sectors. Delphi technique was employed to identify the region-specific agribusiness opportunities for youth by consulting with extension officials from the selected districts and were categorized into different groups i.e., Agriculture (on farm/off farm)includes hi-tech agriculture, agritourisim; processing and value addition includes tuber crops, fruits value addition; supply chain units includes seedlings nursery, bio control & fertilizers shop; animal husbandry includes dairy 141 farming, piggery units; allied sectors & other services includes bio flock fish farming and consultancy services. Preferences for healthy and organic foods, availability of advanced technologies and lack of credit & minimum support prices, low social image were identified as major sustaining and impeding factors respectively which influenced youth participation in agriculture. Strategies like evaluation and improvisation of existing schemes, allocation of improved subsidies for adopting advanced technologies, young farmer clubs and assured prices were suggested for enhancing youth participation in agriculture. The study concluded that both rural youth (71.11%) and urban youth (71.11%) were having medium level of perception towards agriculture and allied sectors and there was no much significant difference observed between the perception rural and urban youth towards agriculture except in profit maximization. Therefore, to attract youth towards agriculture, the extension interventions should emphasis more on investment & returns to make agriculture a profitable and a sustainable business.Item Crop insurance schemes in Kerala: A perspective analysis(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2022-03-17) Niranjan Suresh; G S SreedayaThe study entitled ‘Crop insurance schemes in Kerala: A perspective analysis’ was undertaken during 2020-2021. The objectives were to assess the farmers’ perception towards crop insurance schemes in Kerala and compare the perception of beneficiary and non-beneficiary farmers of crop insurance schemes in Kerala. The constraints in the disbursement of crop insurance schemes as perceived by farmers and officials along with suggestions to overcome the constraints were also assessed. The study was conducted using ex-post facto design, at the three purposively selected districts of Kerala (vulnerability to recurring natural disasters and associated agricultural loss) namely, Kottayam, Idukki and Malappuram. The sample comprised of 60 beneficiary farmers of crop insurance which were selected using stratified random sampling considering crop insurance as strata (Restructured State Crop Insurance Scheme of Kerala (RSCIS), Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) and Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (RWBCIS)), 60 non-beneficiary farmers of crop insurance and 30 extension officials in the implementation of state and central insurance schemes. Perception of farmers towards crop insurance schemes in Kerala was the dependent variable which was measured using a scale developed by Jyothi (2019). Through judges rating and relevancy scoring, eight independent variables and four intervening variables were selected for the study. The statistical tools used were frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation, Chi-square test of significance, MannWhitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis analysis and Garrett ranking. The distribution of farmers based on their perception towards crop insurance schemes in Kerala revealed that 69.17 per cent of them had medium perception, 18.33 per cent had low perception and remaining 12.50 per cent had high perception. The results of intervening variables revealed that majority of the farmers were in the medium category of awareness about crop insurance schemes in Kerala (79.17%), awareness about climate change (55.84%), awareness about climate resilient strategies (60.83%) and human animal conflict management (65.83%). 148 Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the perception of beneficiary farmers and non-beneficiary farmers in terms of five dimensions. It was found that there existed a significant difference in their perception with respect to three dimensions namely, risk management, information seeking behavior and profit maximization. The perception of beneficiary farmers towards the three crop insurance schemes (RSCIS, PMFBY and RWBCIS) were compared and it was revealed that their existed a significant difference between the two central (PMFBY and RWBCIS) and restructured state crop insurance (RSCIS). The same result was obtained for extension officials. Based on analysis, 52.50 per cent of the farmers belonged to old age (above 56 years) and 62.50 per cent had education up to secondary/higher secondary school level. Majority of the farmers belonged to marginal (34.17%) and small (30.83%) category of land holding with (35.89%) having an annual income around ₹ 50,001 to one lakh. Majority of the farmers were in the medium category of credit orientation (80.83%), economic motivation (61.67%), decision making ability (71.67%) and innovation proneness (65.00%). Chi square test of significance was performed for testing the association of the dependent variable with various independent variables and intervening variables. It revealed that, out of eight independent variables, four variables ‘education’, ‘operational land holding’, ‘credit orientation’ and ‘decision-making ability’ had significant association with the farmers’ perception towards crop insurance schemes in Kerala whereas out of four intervening variables only ‘awareness about crop insurance’ and ‘awareness about climate resilient strategies’ showed significant association with the dependent variable. The major constraints identified by farmers through Garrett ranking were, delay in payment of claim, improper reporting of crop loss, absence of individual approach and the complicated procedures of insurance policy. Poor publicity and advertising, delay in claim settlement, lack of awareness about crop insurance schemes were the major constraints reported by extension officials. 149 Hassle free claim settlement, revised crop loss estimation with individual approach and conscientisation programmes for farmers regarding various crop insurance schemes were the major suggestions given by farmers. Collaboration between LSGs in creating awareness and disbursal of crop insurance, providing advanced forecasting techniques to disburse timely weather forecast and digital literacy of farmers for e-filling of crop insurance schemes were the major suggestions given by extension officials. To conclude, majority of farmers had to medium perception regarding crop insurance schemes in Kerala. It was revealed that there exists a significant difference in the perception regarding the central and state crop insurance. Delayed claim settlement and improper crop loss assessment were the most felt constraints by farmers. The method of area approach in loss assessment was not acceptable to the farmers. Frequent popularization of schemes through mass media can influence the awareness and knowledge of farmers regarding crop insurance and will contribute to the farmers’ enrollment in various crop insurance schemes.Item Yield cap and technology adoption of rice in north Kerala: A multi-dimensional analysis(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2022-01-21) Sneha N.; Allan ThomasThe study on “Yield gap and technology adoption of rice in North Kerala: A multidimensional analysis” was conducted in the districts Kasaragod, Kannur, Kozhikode, Wayanad, Palakkad, Thrissur and Malappuram districts representing the Northern part of Kerala. One panchayath with maximum rice farmers from each district was selected in consultation with the PAO office. Fifteen farmers from each panchayath with a minimum holding of 50 cents of rice field were selected in consultation with the respective Agricultural Officer, thus making a total of 105 respondents from seven districts. Age, sex, education, farming experience, area under rice cultivation, income from agriculture, income from paddy cultivation, trainings received, economic motivation, innovativeness, scientific orientation, market orientation, extension orientation, level of awareness and knowledge were the independent variables selected through judges rating. Level of adoption and yield gap were the dependent variables. Sixteen recommended practices in rice cultivation were selected after consulting the subject matter specialists for the study on adoption. Most of the respondents belonged to middle age category (48.57 %) followed by old age (29.53%) and young age (21.90%). Majority of the respondents were males (81.90%). Majority of the respondents had education up to 10th (57.54%) level. Only 4.76% farmers possessed an education above graduation. A large proportion (69.52%) of the farmers had a farming experience of more than 20 years and only 7.62 per cent of the respondents had a farming experience of less than 10 years. 61.90 per cent of the respondents had less than 2 Acres of land under cultivation, only 2.85 per cent of the respondents had an area greater than 5 Acres. 43.80 per cent of the respondents had an income greater than one lakh, whereas 20.95 per cent of the respondents had an income less than Rs. 50,000. Majority of the respondents (39.04 %) had an income from paddy cultivation in between Rs. 50,000 to one lakh, however 27.61per cent had an income of less than Rs. 50000 from paddy cultivation. 75.23 per cent of the respondents had received less than five trainings, however only 0.95% of the respondents had received more than ten trainings. Most of the respondents belonged to a medium level of economic motivation (56.19%). 20.95 per cent respondents had a high economic motivation. Majority of the respondents had a medium level of innovation (64.76 %) with 12.38 per cent of respondents possessing high level of innovativeness. Majority of the respondents belonged to medium category of scientific orientation (55.23 %), and 21.90 per cent respondents had low scientific orientation. Most of the respondents had a medium level of market orientation (68.57%) with 11.42 per cent of the respondents owning a low market orientation. When 59.04 per cent of the respondents belonged to medium category of economic motivation only 17.14 per cent of respondents had high economic motivation. 196 All the respondents were very much aware and had the knowledge about the recommended moisture content of rice, 33.33 per cent were aware about the practice of installation of bird perches to reduce pests and 63.33 % of the respondents were not aware about spraying malathion solution in godown to check storage pest. Most of the respondents belonged to a medium level of adoption (51.42%) followed by 23.80% of respondents with high level of adoption. Independent variables viz., innovativeness, level of awareness and knowledge were significantly correlated to the extent of adoption. Farmer respondents were categorized to different adopter categories as explained by Rogers (1982). According to the findings 34.29 per cent of respondents were late majority followed by early majority (33.33 %) and only 0.95 per cent of the farmers were innovators. The most widely cultivated rice variety was Uma (96.19%) followed by Jyothi variety (17.14%). The yield gap was found to be highest for Jyothi variety of rice (29.86%). Friedman test was performed to find out the most important factors affecting the yield gap of rice in prominent rice varieties viz., Uma and Jyothi. Socio-economic and biological factors were the most important components affecting the yield gap of both the varieties of rice. Transplantation @ 2-3 seedlings per hill and use of chemicals for weed management were perceived as very useful by the respondents. 1000m2 seedbed for 1 hectare of rice field was a practice which was perceived very effective by the farmers. Market availability was the most important reason for the preference of paddy cultivation. Lack of awareness was the principle reason for non-adoption of recommended practices. Flood (34.29%) was the most important constraint faced by the respondents followed by lack of infrastructure (32.38%) and high labour cost (30.48%). The primary suggestion was to develop more effective government policies to support marketing of produce. To conclude, the study indicates, that innovativeness plays an important role in adoption of technology. Yield gap can be significantly reduced by improving the socioeconomic factors corresponding to the farmers. The presence of 34.29 per cent of late majority indicates that there exists enough space for improvement in paddy cultivation and scaling up the adoption using appropriate extension interventions through an integrated scientific approach.