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    Farmers perception towards Iritty coconut farmers producer company limited
    (College of Co-operation, Banking and Management , Vellanikkara, 2024-10-26) Heera Sreekumar; George Paul
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    Economics of rainfeed, conventinal and drip irrigated coconut cultivation in Palakkad District, Kerala
    (Department of Agricultural Econimics, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025) Rinshina, T.; Seenath Peedikakandi
    Water is a vital resource that sustains life on Earth, playing an essential role in ecosystems, regulating climate, and supporting biodiversity. In agriculture, efficient irrigation practices are essential for enhancing the resource use efficiency, ensuring food security and safeguarding water resources for future generations. Micro irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation can increase productivity, reduce wastage and minimize the environmental impact of farming operations. The study entitled “Economics of rainfed, conventional and drip irrigated coconut cultivation in Palakkad district, Kerala” aimed to estimate and compare the economics of rainfed, conventional, and drip-irrigated coconut cultivation. It further analysed the economic efficiency of irrigated farms and identified factors influencing and challenges in the adoption of drip irrigation. Palakkad district was purposively selected, owing to its status of minimal groundwater recharge in Kerala. From the district, two block panchayats viz. Chittur and Kollengode having highest area under drip irrigated coconut cultivation were purposively selected for the study. Data were collected from 140 respondents across two blocks, Chittur and Kollengode comprising 50 drip-irrigated farms (DIF), 50 conventionally irrigated farms (CIF) and 40 rainfed farms. The socio-economic profile of the farmers indicated that 38 per cent of the respondents were aged between 50 and 59 years, 52 per cent completed tenth grade and the majority (32%) had annual incomes ranging from ₹2 to ₹4 lakhs. Nearly half (47%) were small farmers and most (94%) having medium-sized families comprising of 3-6 members. The analysis of irrigation pattern in the farms revealed that drip irrigated farms could irrigate more frequently with 60 per cent irrigating every alternate day. Annual water use for drip-irrigated farms was 2685 m³/ha, substantially lower than the 6,745 m³/ha used by conventionally irrigated farms, highlighting the role of drip irrigation in water conservation. The amortised establishment costs were ₹15,518/ha/year for rainfed farms, ₹20,079/ha/year for CIF, and ₹19,695/ha/year for DIF. Maintenance costs amounted to ₹1,00,838/ha/year for rainfed farms, ₹1,44,485/ha/year for CIF, and ₹1,30,441/ha/year for DIF. Irrigation costs were significantly lower for drip-irrigated farms (₹22,038/ha) ii compared to conventionally irrigated farms (₹31,399/ha). DIF with total cost of cultivation of ₹1,59,267/ha/year) could achieve 10 per cent reduction in total cost of cultivation than that of CIF. Similarly, DIF could achieve highest productivity (19,035 nuts/ha/year), 9 per cent higher than CIF. Net returns were also highest in DIF (₹70,470/ha/year). Even though the cost of cultivation was lowest for rainfed farms (₹1,23,415/ha/year), they were having lowest yield and net returns. Technical efficiency analysis revealed that the mean efficiencies were 94 per cent for DIF and 82 per cent for CIF. Similarly, economic efficiencies were 90 per cent among DIF and 86 per cent among CIF. The resource use efficiency of irrigation water was 0.93 for drip irrigated farms and 0.16 for CIF showing overuse of water. Both DIF and CIF were using water more than the levels recommended as per KAU. The region has dry and intense agro-climatic conditions compared to other parts of the state making state level irrigation recommendations unreliable. The factors influencing the adoption of drip irrigation system were analysed using the binary logistic regression. The results revealed that the factors such as household income, education, type of water source, membership in social organisations, and irrigation costs were significantly influencing the adoption of drip irrigation. The major challenges for the adoption of drip irrigation were lack of funds, lack of streamline and proper implantation of subsidy, maintenance issues, poor water quality, destruction by animals and low awareness. The study concluded that drip irrigation improved water use efficiency, reduced costs, enhanced yields, and increased returns making it an effective option for water-scarce regions. Field trials need to be conducted specific to the region to estimate optimum quantity of water under drip irrigation. Demonstration trials and awareness creation programmes need to be carried out to popularise fertigation and optimum water use to reduce water wastage. Lack of funds was hindering adoption of drip irrigation and hence PMKSY micro irrigation subsidy scheme needed to be streamlined and made more flexible and timely.
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    Development of coconut [Cocos nucifera (L.)] inflorescence based dietary supplement
    (Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2023-03-18) Keerthy Chandran.; Sonia N S
    The present investigation entitled “Development of coconut [Cocos nucifera (L.)] inflorescence based dietary supplement” was carried out in the Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during the period 2020-2022 with the objective to identify the ideal maturity stage of harvesting coconut inflorescence, development of good quality coconut inflorescence powder, protocol for development of coconut inflorescence based dietary supplement having superior nutritional and pharmacological properties along with shelf-life assessment of the developed dietary supplement. Coconut inflorescence at four different stages viz., 7 – 10 months before inflorescence opening (S1), 5 – 6 months before inflorescence opening (S2), 3 – 4 months before inflorescence opening (S3) and at inflorescence opening (S4) were dried, powdered, analysed for in vitro antioxidant activity (DPPH radical scavenging assay) and sensory quality was analysed by using a porridge out of it. S2 stage recorded the highest antioxidant activity, 88.77% DPPH free radical inhibition and sensory quality viz., colour (97.65), taste (100.20), flavour (103.00), consistency (95.22) and mouth feel (94.35). Hence, coconut inflorescence harvested at five to six months before inflorescence opening (S2) was identified as the ideal stage for the development of coconut inflorescence powder (CIP). CIP having superior nutritional and sensory quality could be prepared by soaking the chopped inflorescence in anti-browning agent combination: citric acid (1%) + sodium chloride (1%) for five minutes followed by drying in hot-air oven at 60°C. The nutritional composition of the developed CIP (100 g) is carbohydrate (4.67 g), protein (8.82 g), fat (1.96 g), calcium (195.25 mg), iron (0.84 mg), sodium (16.54 mg), vitamin A (973.50 µg), vitamin C (33.46 mg), crude fibre (57.14 g) and total ash (0.82 g). Mean rank value for the sensory attributes viz., colour, consistency, flavour, mouth feel and taste were 546.23, 527.35, 526.28, 541.35 and 525.15, respectively. Coconut inflorescence dietary supplement(CIDS) containingCIP,ragi, green gram and sesame in the proportion 70: 10: 10: 10 (DS3) recorded 81.14% DPPH radical scavenging inhibition (in vitro antioxidant activity), 84.97% alpha amylase inhibition (in vitro anti-diabetic activity) and superior sensory attributes (mean rank value- colour: 162.95, taste: 162.47, flavour: 162.00, consistency: 163.05, mouth feel: 162.07). The nutritional composition of the of the developed CIDS (100 g) is carbohydrate (18.40 g 100 g-1 ), protein (13.42 g 100 g -1 ), fat (2.01 g 100 g -1 ), calcium (202.40 mg 100 g -1 ), iron (1.82 mg 100 g-1 ), sodium (19.81 mg 100 g-1 ), vitamin A (963.70 µg 100 g-1 ), vitamin C (39.80 mg 100 g-1 ), crude fibre (43.68 g 100 g-1 ) and total ash (2.57 g 100 g-1 ). The CIDS was subjected to further storage study for shelf life assessment. Coconut inflorescence dietary supplement packaged using aluminium foil covers and stored under refrigerated condition (P4S2) recorded the lowest peroxide value (8.01 meq. O2 kg-1 ), bacterial count (1.00 cfu g-1 × 107 ), fungal count (1.67 cfu g-1 × 105 ) and yeast count (1.00 cfu g-1 × 103 ) after three months of storage. The study revealed that the ideal maturity stage for harvesting coconut inflorescence for the development of dietary supplement is five to six months before inflorescence opening. Coconut Inflorescence Powder (CIP) could be prepared by soaking the chopped inflorescence pieces (1cm3 ) in a combination of 1% citric acid and 1% sodium chloride for five minutes followed by drying in hot-air oven at 60°C. Coconut inflorescence dietary supplement (CIDS) could be prepared by compositing CIP, ragi, green gram and sesame in 70:10:10:10 ratio. CIDS could be packaged using aluminium foil covers and stored under refrigerated condition for an improved shelf life of three months.
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    Fungal pathogens associated with button shedding in coconut and its management using antagonistic microorganisms
    (Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2022-03-08) Aparnna Shaju; Radhakrishnan, N V
    The research work entitled ‘Fungal pathogens associated with button shedding in coconut and its management using antagonistic microorganisms’ was conducted during 2019-21 at Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani and Coconut Research Station, Balaramapuram with the objectives to isolate the fungal pathogens associated with button shedding in coconut, in vitro screening of the isolated pathogens and spraying of antagonists on the field for the management of the disease. Fallen infected nuts were collected from College of Agriculture, Vellayani and Coconut Research Station, Balaramapuram. The percentage disease incidence and intensity were high during monsoon season with highest value in the month of May in both locations. The disease was highly prevalent in Coconut Research Station, Balaramapuram compared to College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The samples collected were grouped into different age groups based on their maturity and found that the fungal infection was more prevalent in two month old nuts (88.57 %) and 3-4 month old nuts (87.00 %) while five month or above old nuts recorded lower fungal infection (40.00 %). The fungal pathogens isolated from both locations include Phytophthora palmivora, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Fusarium oxysporum, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Thielaviopsis paradoxa. Regardless of the pathogen isolated from the samples, the fallen nuts displayed brown to black lesions extending from the perianth regions to the distal end. The isolated fungi vary in their morphological and microscopical characteristics which forms the basis for their identification. P. palmivora isolates were white to dull white in colour with stellate or irregular pattern. Lasiodiplodia theobromae cultures were initially white in colour which later turned grey and eventually became black in colour. F. oxysporum produced whitish colony growth with yellow or pink colour on the rear side. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides isolates showed white colony growth with white or greyish white colour on the rear side. T. paradoxa isolates had whitish colony growth with black pigmentation. The sporangia of P. palmivora were elongated, papillate and pedicellate while L. theobromae had dark brown, septate conidia with longitudinal striations. F. oxysporum produced oval micro conidia and sickle shaped macro conidia. Spores of C. gloeosporioides were cylindrical in shape with oil globule in the center. Dark brown conidia in chains without any septa were the characteristics of T. paradoxa. When cultured on Potato Dextrose Agar medium, the isolates varied in the time taken to fully cover the 9 cm Petri plate. T. paradoxa and L. theobromae took only three days to attain full growth. P. palmivora and C. gloeosporioides isolates attained full growth within 10 to 12 days. F. oxysporum took more than 12 days to reach full growth. The isolated pathogens when inoculated on two month old healthy nuts resulted in the formation of brown to black lesions. The lesion size varied with the inoculated fungus. T. paradoxa and L. theobromae were the most virulent and caused severe rotting of nuts within 15 days of inoculation. The combined inoculation of isolates obtained from Coconut Research Station, Balaramapuram resulted in much more severe rotting than isolates obtained from College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The isolated pathogens were screened in vitro against antagonistic microorganisms obtained from Department of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani which include Pseudomonas fluorescens PN026, Trichoderma sp. (KAU strain), Bacillus amyloliquefaciens VLY24 and Bacillus velezensis PCSE10. The antagonists exhibited lysis or overgrowth or antibiosis in dual culture plates depending on the pathogen tested. Among these antagonists, Trichoderma sp. (KAU strain) showed higher inhibition percentage and antagonistic index. Among the bacterial antagonists, B. amyloliquefaciens VLY24 and B. velezensis PCSE10 recorded wider inhibition zone with higher percentage inhibition and antagonistic index. P. fluorescens had the lowest percentage of inhibition and antagonistic index. The antagonistic microorganisms tested in vitro were cultured in liquid broth and adjusted to 108 colony forming units per ml. The antagonists are then sprayed on two to seven month old bunches of button shedding affected palms in Coconut Research Station, Balaramapuram. Copper oxychloride (0.2 %) was used as chemical check. The number of nuts in the treated bunches were noted down at the time of spraying and also at fortnightly intervals. The percentage nut fall for each interval was calculated. After 70 days of spraying, the percentage of nut fall was much lower in bunches sprayed with B. amyloliquefaciens VLY24 (42.71 %) followed by Copper oxychloride treatment (47.54 %). The nut fall percentage exhibited a declining trend which could be attributed to the decrease in fungal infection in mature nuts.
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    Design development of continuous type coconut splitter
    (Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2022-02-28) Pachangane Alankar Ashok.; Shivaji ,K P
    Coconut (Cocous nucifera L.) is one of the most prominent commercial crops in tropical and is usually referred as “tree of heaven”. The seed or the fruit of the coconut palm, which is also referred as coconut must be dehusked and split before using for various purposes. Although there are different techniques and tools for splitting or cracking open the mature coconut, there is no suitable machine for continuous splitting of nut with provision for collecting the coconut water hygienically. Development of such machine requires a detailed investigation on the physical and engineering properties of coconut. Splitting energy and splitting force required are certain other vital information necessary for the design. Hence this study was undertaken for investigating the design parameters for the development of a continuous coconut splitting machine. The physical properties of the coconut were determined using standard procedures and the splitting energy requirement was determined using an impact test apparatus. The maximum splitting force was then calculated from the splitting energy. Based on the maximum splitting force and physical properties, the design parameters were evolved, and a machine was designed and developed. The trails of the machine were then conducted to evaluate the performance in comparison with the conventional splitting method. The average major diameter of the coconuts were obtained as 117.24 mm with standard deviation of 9.00 mm. The average minor diameter of the coconuts were recorded as 97.09 mm with standard deviation of 5.57 mm. The average intermediate diameter of the coconuts were found to be 93.29 mm with a standard deviation of 4.59 mm. The average weight of the coconuts were observed as 579.99 g with a standard deviation of 104.56 g. The average roundness of the coconuts were measured and found to be 0.65 95 with a standard deviation of 0.10. The average sphericity of the coconuts was 0.83 with a standard deviation of 0.05. The average volume of the coconuts were 556.20 cm3 with a standard deviation of 64.07 cm3 . The average density was 1.04 g cm-3 with a standard deviation of 0.14 g cm-3 . The maximum splitting energy and force needed to split coconuts were recorded as 35.84 J and 609.25 N respectively. The machine was designed to split coconut by impact force, by making an impact tool hitting the nut positioned in continuously rotating feeder. The impact tool held in position by a tension spring, was actuated by a cam, which in turn receives power from an electric motor of 0.746 kW. Speed reduction gear box, chain and sprockets were used for transmitting the power from motor to the impact tool. Water collecting trough and strainer were fixed beneath the feeder and impact tool. The performance evaluation of continuous type coconut splitter was conducted, and it was found that time require to split the coconut is 5 seconds. The average splitting efficiency of the machine was obtained as 85.51 per cent with a standard deviation of 8.25. The output capacity of the developed machine was 372.4 kg h -1 . The total number of coconuts split per hour was obtained as 720. The efficiency of the machine was obtained as 85.71 per cent. Keywords: Coconut, Splitting energy, Splitting force, Impact tool, splitting efficiency, machine output capacity, efficiency of the machine.
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    Development of coconut [Cocos nucifera (L.)] inflorescence based dietary supplement
    (Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2023-03-18) Sonia, N S
    The present investigation entitled “Development of coconut [Cocos nucifera (L.)] inflorescence based dietary supplement” was carried out in the Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during the period 2020-2022 with the objective to identify the ideal maturity stage of harvesting coconut inflorescence, development of good quality coconut inflorescence powder, protocol for development of coconut inflorescence based dietary supplement having superior nutritional and pharmacological properties along with shelf-life assessment of the developed dietary supplement. Coconut inflorescence at four different stages viz., 7 – 10 months before inflorescence opening (S1), 5 – 6 months before inflorescence opening (S2), 3 – 4 months before inflorescence opening (S3) and at inflorescence opening (S4) were dried, powdered, analysed for in vitro antioxidant activity (DPPH radical scavenging assay) and sensory quality was analysed by using a porridge out of it. S2 stage recorded the highest antioxidant activity, 88.77% DPPH free radical inhibition and sensory quality viz., colour (97.65), taste (100.20), flavour (103.00), consistency (95.22) and mouth feel (94.35). Hence, coconut inflorescence harvested at five to six months before inflorescence opening (S2) was identified as the ideal stage for the development of coconut inflorescence powder (CIP). CIP having superior nutritional and sensory quality could be prepared by soaking the chopped inflorescence in anti-browning agent combination: citric acid (1%) + sodium chloride (1%) for five minutes followed by drying in hot-air oven at 60°C. The nutritional composition of the developed CIP (100 g) is carbohydrate (4.67 g), protein (8.82 g), fat (1.96 g), calcium (195.25 mg), iron (0.84 mg), sodium (16.54 mg), vitamin A (973.50 µg), vitamin C (33.46 mg), crude fibre (57.14 g) and total ash (0.82 g). Mean rank value for the sensory attributes viz., colour, consistency, flavour, mouth feel and taste were 546.23, 527.35, 526.28, 541.35 and 525.15, respectively. Coconut inflorescence dietary supplement (CIDS) containing CIP, ragi, green gram and sesame in the proportion 70: 10: 10: 10 (DS3) recorded 81.14% DPPH radical scavenging inhibition (in vitro antioxidant activity), 84.97% alpha amylase inhibition (in vitro anti-diabetic activity) and superior sensory attributes (mean rank value- colour: 162.95, taste: 162.47, flavour: 162.00, consistency: 163.05, mouth feel: 162.07). The nutritional composition of the of the developed CIDS (100 g) is carbohydrate (18.40 g 100 g-1), protein (13.42 g 100 g-1), fat (2.01 g 100 g-1), calcium (202.40 mg 100 g-1), iron (1.82 mg 100 g-1), sodium (19.81 mg 100 g-1), vitamin A (963.70 µg 100 g-1), vitamin C (39.80 mg 100 g-1), crude fibre (43.68 g 100 g-1) and total ash (2.57 g 100 g-1). The CIDS was subjected to further storage study for shelf life assessment. Coconut inflorescence dietary supplement packaged using aluminium foil covers and stored under refrigerated condition (P4S2) recorded the lowest peroxide value (8.01 meq. O2 kg-1), bacterial count (1.00 cfu g-1 × 107), fungal count (1.67 cfu g-1 × 105) and yeast count (1.00 cfu g-1 × 103) after three months of storage. The study revealed that the ideal maturity stage for harvesting coconut inflorescence for the development of dietary supplement is five to six months before inflorescence opening. Coconut Inflorescence Powder (CIP) could be prepared by soaking the chopped inflorescence pieces (1cm3) in a combination of 1% citric acid and 1% sodium chloride for five minutes followed by drying in hot-air oven at 60°C. Coconut inflorescence dietary supplement (CIDS) could be prepared by compositing CIP, ragi, green gram and sesame in 70:10:10:10 ratio. CIDS could be packaged using aluminium foil covers and stored under refrigerated condition for an improved shelf life of three months.
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    Management of button shedding in coconut by root feeding of nutrients and growth regulators
    (Department of Plant Physiology, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2021-12-13) Shanmugapriya, D; Roy Stephen
    The study entitled “Management of button shedding in coconut by root feeding of nutrients and growth regulators” was conducted to determine the physiological management of button shedding in coconut by using nutrients and growth regulators through root feeding and to determine the role of beneficial microbes on auxin production in coconut. Two experiments were conducted at Coconut Research Station, Balaramapuram during 2020-2021. Survey was conducted for the first experiment to select the palms with uniform age having significant button shedding. The respective solutions were prepared and administered to the palms through root feeding. The yield parameters, biochemical and physiological parameters were estimated and recorded for the first six months. The results shown that the yield parameters such as the number of female flowers and the number of buttons retained showed non siginificant variation in all the treatments. The percentage of button shedding also showed non siginificant variation during 5th and 6th month. Among the 7 treatments, T2 [Hoagland solution - 2X] reported the lowest button shedding percentage (22.9, 24.2, 28.4 and 31.1%) for the first four months respectively followed by T6 [Salicylic acid-200ppm] and T5 [Borax (0.5 g palm-1 ) + 2, 4- D (50 ppm)] .T1 [Control] reported the highest level of button shedding percentage (32.88, 37.21, 44.25 and 50%) for the first four months respectively. The physiological parameters such as transpiration rate shown the highest level (3.8, 4.0, 4.3, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 mmol H2O m-2 sec-1 ) in the T2 treatment followed by T6 respectively for the first six months. T2 reported the maximum photosynthetic rate (4.4, 4.6, 4.9, 4.8, 4.9 and 5.2 µmol CO2 m-2 sec-1 ) for a period of first six months respectively which was on par with T6. T1 reported the minimum photosynthetic rate and transpiration rate for the first six months. The biochemical parameters such as carbohydrate content was maximum (21.84,79.65, 77.42, 84.33,96.66 mg g-1 ) in the T2 treated palms respectively except 2nd month. There was no significant variation in between the treatments during 2nd month. The macronutrients such as N (2.07, 2.26, 2.5, 2.37, 2.41, and 2.54 %), K (1.27, 1.46, 1.7, 1.65, 1.87, 2.14%), Mg (1.56, 1.74, 1.95, 1.6, 1.78, and 1.89 %), Ca (0.57, 0.88, 1.05, 0.88, 1.08 and 1.16%) and S (0.57, 0.75, 1.06, 0.86, 1.01 and 1.19%) were higher in T2 treated palms respectively for six months. T7 [SA (200 ppm) + 2, 4- D (50ppm)] recorded the maximum phosphorus content (0.13, 0.14, 0.18, 0.08, 0.15, and 0.22 %) during the observation of first six months respectively. Micronutrients such as Fe (158.5, 175.45, 240, 234, 258.33 and 275.66 ppm), B (15.06, 19.16, 26.93, 20.33, 25.33 and 31.33ppm) and Mn (169.55, 179.66, 188.66, 181.92, 186.66 and 195.33 ppm) was also higher in the T2 treated palms for the first six months respectively. Except 1st month, T2 reported higher copper content (54, 67.66, 61.66, 71, 81.33ppm) from 2nd to 6th month. T5 [Borax (0.5 gm palm-1 ) + 2, 4- D (50 ppm)] reported the highest Zinc content (42.33, 43.9, 55.34, 46.43, 53.32 and 62.06 ppm) for the first six months respectively. T1 reported the lowest level of carbohydrate content and nutritional (macro and micro) content in the leaf during the six months period. The second experiment was performed to evaluate the role of beneficial microbes on auxin production in coconut. Piriformospora indica vermiculite mixture and Rhizobium radiobacter suspension were prepared and inoculated in the 3 months old coconut seedlings and the colonization was evaluated after 15 days of inoculation and recurred until the result was obtained. The results revealed that the chlamydospores similar to the P. indica were colonized in the cortex region of the root hairs of the coconut seedlings. Colonization of Rhizobium radiobacter were not observed in the roots of coconut seedlings. In coconut, considerable loss in yield had been observed due to the phenomenon of shedding of buttons. It varies from 55 to 95 per cent depending on the conditions prevailing, and on the variety of the coconut. In my study, root feeding of Hoagland solution (2X) recorded 43.03, 53.6, 55.7, 60.7% lower button shedding percentage over the control during the first four months respectively. Salicylic acid-200 ppm and [Borax (0.5 g palm-1 ) + 2, 4- D (50 ppm)] was also able to control the button shedding effectively.
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    Design development of continuous type coconut splitter
    (Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology,Tavanur, 2022) Pachangane Alankar Ashok; Shivaji, K P
    Coconut (Cocous nucifera L.) is one of the most prominent commercial crops in tropical and is usually referred as “tree of heaven”. The seed or the fruit of the coconut palm, which is also referred as coconut must be dehusked and split before using for various purposes. Although there are different techniques and tools for splitting or cracking open the mature coconut, there is no suitable machine for continuous splitting of nut with provision for collecting the coconut water hygienically. Development of such machine requires a detailed investigation on the physical and engineering properties of coconut. Splitting energy and splitting force required are certain other vital information necessary for the design. Hence this study was undertaken for investigating the design parameters for the development of a continuous coconut splitting machine. The physical properties of the coconut were determined using standard procedures and the splitting energy requirement was determined using an impact test apparatus. The maximum splitting force was then calculated from the splitting energy. Based on the maximum splitting force and physical properties, the design parameters were evolved, and a machine was designed and developed. The trails of the machine were then conducted to evaluate the performance in comparison with the conventional splitting method. The average major diameter of the coconuts were obtained as 117.24 mm with standard deviation of 9.00 mm. The average minor diameter of the coconuts were recorded as 97.09 mm with standard deviation of 5.57 mm. The average intermediate diameter of the coconuts were found to be 93.29 mm with a standard deviation of 4.59 mm. The average weight of the coconuts were observed as 579.99 g with a standard deviation of 104.56 g. The average roundness of the coconuts were measured and found to be 0.65 95 with a standard deviation of 0.10. The average sphericity of the coconuts was 0.83 with a standard deviation of 0.05. The average volume of the coconuts were 556.20 cm3 with a standard deviation of 64.07 cm3 . The average density was 1.04 g cm-3 with a standard deviation of 0.14 g cm-3 . The maximum splitting energy and force needed to split coconuts were recorded as 35.84 J and 609.25 N respectively. The machine was designed to split coconut by impact force, by making an impact tool hitting the nut positioned in continuously rotating feeder. The impact tool held in position by a tension spring, was actuated by a cam, which in turn receives power from an electric motor of 0.746 kW. Speed reduction gear box, chain and sprockets were used for transmitting the power from motor to the impact tool. Water collecting trough and strainer were fixed beneath the feeder and impact tool. The performance evaluation of continuous type coconut splitter was conducted, and it was found that time require to split the coconut is 5 seconds. The average splitting efficiency of the machine was obtained as 85.51 per cent with a standard deviation of 8.25. The output capacity of the developed machine was 372.4 kg h -1 . The total number of coconuts split per hour was obtained as 720. The efficiency of the machine was obtained as 85.71 per cent. Keywords: Coconut, Splitting energy, Splitting force, Impact tool, splitting efficiency, machine output capacity, efficiency of the machine.
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    Comparative genome analysis in coconut (Cocos nucifera Linn.) and marker development for distinguishing tall and dwarf coconut types
    (Department of Plant Biotechnology, Centre for Plant Biotechnology and molecular Biology, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2021) Shri Hari Prasad; Deepu Mathew
    Coconut is an important oil nut crop in the humid tropics of the world. Because of its inevitable uses as food, drink, fuel, and so on, this palm is known as ‘the tree of life or Kalpavriksha’. There are two ecotypes in coconut, tall and dwarf. Development of dwarf varieties with high yield, longer life span, field tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses and good kernel and oil recovery, is the major breeding objective in this crop. Breeding attempts for dwarf palm stature are crippled with the non-availability of a precise methodology to identify the dwarf lines at the early plant stage itself. Development of molecular markers linked with this trait will enable the marker assisted selection for dwarf palms. The present study entitled “Comparative genome analysis in coconut (Cocos nucifera Linn.) and marker development for distinguishing tall and dwarf coconut types” was undertaken at Centre for Plant Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, College of Agriculture, Thrissur, during 2019 to 2022, with the objective to identify the differential genes and genomic regions among the tall and dwarf coconut genotypes through comparative whole genome sequence analyses and to develop molecular markers for distinguishing tall and dwarf coconut types. The coconut genome assemblies and raw reads were retrieved from various databases, quality of the assemblies and raw reads analyzed, raw reads trimmed and assembled using SOAPdenovo2, ABySS and Velvetoptimiser. Repeat masking was carried out on coconut genome assemblies, using RepeatMasker employing Dfam and RepBase as libraries. Since the library yielded insufficient masking percentage, de novo repeat library was prepared for the genome assemblies using RepeatModeller. The repeat libraries thus obtained have been merged to get a comprehensive and exhaustive repeat library for coconut and was used to perform repeat masking. Further, the efficiency of the combined repeat library for repeat masking in other palms was checked and found effective. The library was made publicly available at https://kau.in/repeat-libraries. Gene prediction was carried out for the repeat masked genomes using AUGUSTUS, a eukaryotic gene prediction tool. Comparative genome analyses were carried out by NCBI BLAST+, unique sequences obtained for dwarf and tall genomes were identified and extracted. The extracted sequences were annotated using online BLAST and functional annotation was carried out using BLAST2GO. Reverse BLAST was performed to ensure that the sequences thus obtained are unique and PCR primers were designed for the sequences. Leaf samples were collected from 10 coconut accessions, five each of the tall and dwarf types, from the parent palms at RARS Plicicode. DNA extracted from these accessions were screened using 27 primer combinations. Ten primer sets have amplified the markers in West Coast Tall only while the primer set Cocos_22 amplified the marker in West Cost Tall and Jawan Giant. Primer set Cocos_21 has amplified the markers in three tall samples, West Coast Tall, Jawan Giant, New Guinea and one dwarf sample Chowghat Green Dwarf. It is already recorded that Chowghat Green Dwarf is not a true dwarf ecotype but belongs to the semi-tall types. Marker Cocos_21 was successful in marker generation in tall accessions, except where this highly quantitative trait is governed by other major QTL. Further, in order to establish a universal marker linked to the height of the coconut palm, more whole genome sequences of tall, dwarf and intermediate ecotypes are required and insights from the sequence data (whole genome and transcriptome) could help in more refined classification of the palms. After validation with other tall and dwarf cultivars, the marker identified in this study may be used in marker assisted selection of coconut.
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    Development of experimental kiln-drying schedules for different types of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) palm wood flooring
    (Department of Forest Products and Utiliztion, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, 2021) Shibu, C; Anoop, E V
    In India, there is a significant gap existing between supply and demand for wood and wood products. Several factors influence wood consumption. For example, the construction sector is witnessing a shift to eco-friendly furnishings. Indeed, the eco-friendly amenity of wooden flooring in hotels and houses has contributed to an upswing in commercial wood consumption. In the current scenario, effective utilisation of existing lesser-known species such as Cocos nucifera L. (Coconut palm tree) is gaining prominence. The lesser known wood species will help to meet the domestic demand and may help to bridge the gap between supply and demand of timber. Seasoning of wood is a crucial step for producing defect-free timber for the ease of doing timber work and potential use of available timber. The purpose of this research is to develop experimental kiln-drying schedules for Cocos nucifera L. (Coconut palm tree) for various flooring methods (Tongue & Groove flooring (T&G flooring), Parquetry flooring, and Engineered overlay flooring). The substructure, base kiln-drying schedules were developed based on the Terazawa method (1965), and optimised using Rasialy (1993) classification. The critical conditions of equalizing treatment and conditioning treatment were established in relation to the product's desirable moisture content, which is 12% for general wood flooring products in climatic zone IV (Kerala). High-density wood samples with thicknesses of 25 mm and 50 mm (20 cm x 10 cm in length and width) were used to investigate drying defects under drastic conditions, and schedules for both thicknesses were developed. Similarly, schedules were developed using medium-density wood samples of 25 mm and 50 mm. The moisture content of the experimental samples (2 cm x 2 cm in length and width) was determined using the oven-dry method, and the basic density was determined based on the water displacement method. 83 The experimental kiln drying schedule recommended for 50 mm thick high-density coconut palm wood Tongue and Groove flooring and Parquetry flooring was MT4-B1 (schedule code). Initial Dry Bulb Temperature 39°C (Relative humidity 89%), Initial Wet Bulb Depression 2°C, and Final Dry bulb Temperature 57°C were the critical conditions for MT4-B1. The highdensity coconut palm wood (25 mm thick) is also suitable for Tongue & Groove flooring and Parquetry flooring and the schedule was MT6-B1 with Initial Dry Bulb Temperature 45°C (Relative humidity 90%), Initial Wet Bulb Depression 2°C, and Final Dry Bulb Temperature 62°C. The recommended experimental kiln drying schedule for medium-density coconut palm wood of 50 mm thickness was MT6-D2 as follows: Initial Dry bulb Temperature 42°C (Relative humidity 87%), Initial Wet Bulb Depression 2°C, and Final Dry bulb Temperature 57°C. The schedule for 25 mm thickness medium-density coconut palm wood was MT6-E1, which includes an Initial Dry bulb Temperature of 42°C (Relative humidity 87%), Initial Wet Bulb Depression of 2°C and a Final Dry bulb Temperature of 45°C. The medium-density coconut palm wood only can be used for overlay flooring because of its low strength. All the schedules are made, considering the desired moisture content (12%) for general flooring purposes under the prevailing conditions of Kerala (Relative humidity > 67%) as prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).