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Item Valuation of externalities due to agrochemicals in vegetable cultivation in Palakkd district(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture Vellayani, 2023-05-12) Koulath ,B.; Paul LazarusThe present study, entitled "Valuation of externality due to agrochemicals in vegetable cultivation in Palakkad District", was conducted during 2021–22 with the specific objectives of studying the cost of cultivation of the selected vegetables in the study area, analyzing the resource use efficiencies of these selected vegetables, and valuing the externalities that arise out of using agrochemicals in vegetable cultivation in the district. Palakkad district was purposefully selected for the study based on the area under cultivation of vegetables in Kerala. From the district, two blocks were selected through purposive sampling based on the area under the selected vegetables, viz., bitter gourd and chilli, namely Chittur and Nemmara. From each of the selected blocks, two Panchayats were randomly selected, namely Vadakarapathy and Eruthempathy from the Chittur block and Nemmara and Elavancherry from the Nemmara block. From each of the selected Panchayats, 15 farmers were selected randomly, who were practising the cultivation of both of the selected crops. Thus the total sample size of farmers constituted was sixty. The cost of cultivation per ha for bitter gourd farmers in Chittur block was calculated, and Cost A1, Cost A2, Cost B, and Cost C were found to be Rs. 3,35,341.71, Rs. 3,56,400.53, Rs. 3,98,488.18, and Rs. 5,45,004.07 per ha respectively. In Nemmara block Cost A1, Cost A2, Cost B, and Cost C were calculated and found to be Rs. 3,55,994.40, Rs. 3,77,847.04, Rs. 4,21,421.34, and Rs. 5,67,937.24 per ha, respectively. In both of the blocks, the major share of cost was incurred for hired labour (27.52% in Chittur and 27.34% in Nemmara), followed by for pandal establishment (14.44% in Chittur and 17.82% in Nemmara). The comparative analysis of yield and returns in Chittur and Nemmara revealed that both yield and returns were higher in Chittur as compared to Nemmara. In Chittur block, the farmers reported an average yield of 22,708.46 kg/ha. The produce sold at 36 rupees on average fetched Rs. 8,17,504.80/ha for the farmer. In Nemmara block, the average output per farmer was 22,375.26 kg/ha. The total return obtained was Rs. 8,05,509.26/ha. The B C ratio of bitter gourd farmers in Chittur block at Cost A1, Cost A2, Cost B and Cost C was 2.44, 2.29, 2.05, and 1.50, respectively. While it was 2.26, 2.13, 1.91, and 1.42, respectively, in the case of farmers in the Nemmara block. In both of the blocks, the B C ratio was greater than one, indicating the cultivation was profitable to farmers. For chilli, the different costs, namely Cost A1, Cost A2, Cost B and Cost C in the Chittur block, were Rs. 2,77,831.18, Rs. 2,81,271.18, Rs. 2,86,425.13, and Rs. 5,27,329.30 per ha, respectively. In Nemmara block, the Cost A1, Cost A2, Cost B and Cost C were Rs. 2,58,220.85, Rs. 2,62,554.18, Rs. 2,66,548.13, and Rs. 4,71,611.42, respectively. In both of the blocks, the major share was incurred for hired labour (Chittur 51.59%, Nemmara 50.72%). The comparative analysis of yield and returns of chilli in Chittur and Nemmara revealed that the yield was higher in Nemmara, but the produce fetched a comparatively higher price in the Chittur block. The B C ratio of chilli farmers of Chittur block at Cost A1, Cost A2, Cost B and Cost C was 2.26, 2.23, 2.19, and 1.19, respectively. While it was 2.25, 2.21, 2.18 and 1.23, respectively, in the case of farmers in the Nemmara block. Cobb-Douglas production function was fitted for bitter gourd and chilli farmers to examine the resource use efficiency of cultivation. For both bitter gourd and chilli, organic manure and hired labour were found to be underutilized, while plant protection chemicals, chemical fertilizers and family labour were overutilized in both of the blocks. A consumer survey of 80 consumers randomly selected from various markets in Palakkad was conducted, and Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) was employed to elicit the Willingness to Pay (WTP) of the consumers interviewed. The consumers were selected from shops selling either organic or conventionally produced vegetables. Among them, 75 per cent of the respondents were aware of the presence of pesticide residues in the vegetables. Consumer awareness regarding the presence of pesticide residues was higher in organized retail outlets (85%) when compared to conventional vegetable selling centres (65%). Out of 80 respondents, 54 expressed their willingness to pay for pesticide-free vegetables (67.5%). The WTP of consumers ranged from Rs. 3 to 40 per kg of pesticide residue-free vegetables. The willingness to pay for pesticide-free vegetables was higher among consumers of organized retail outlets (Rs. 14.7 per kg) compared to conventional markets (Rs. 7.17 per kg). A multiple linear regression was fitted with the amount of WTP as the dependent variable and numerous independent variables. The results indicated that the WTP amount of consumers was significantly and positively influenced by their income, their awareness with respect to the presence of pesticide residues, their education level, and the dummy variable for the market chosen. From this linear regression, the estimated amount of WTP was found to be Rs. 9.02 per kg for pesticide-free vegetables. Thus, the proxy amount of the total externality cost to the consumers due to the application of agrochemicals in vegetable cultivation in Palakkad district was calculated by multiplying the total population of Palakkad with the estimated WTP, and the amount was found to be Rs. 2.53 crore.Item Risk management strategies in commodity value chains: a study of pineapple cultivation in Ernakulam district in the context Ernakulam district of covid-19(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2023-03-15) Arshad, N.; Aswathy VijayanThe present study entitled “Risk management strategies in commodity value chains: A study of pineapple cultivation in Ernakulam district in the context of COVID- 19” was conducted during 2021-22, with specific objectives of the study of volatility in production and price of pineapple in the context of Covid-19, profiling the risk perceived by the pineapple farmers and the factors affecting value chain disruption and the study of the adaptation strategies followed by the farmers. Ernakulam district was purposively selected for the study as the district holds the maximum area under pineapple cultivation. From the district, Muvattupuzha, block panchayath was purposively selected based on the maximum area under pineapple cultivation. From the block panchayath, three grama panchayats such as Avoly, Manjalloor and Kalloorkkad were selected randomly. Forty farmers were randomly selected from each grama panchayath thus making a total sample size of one hundred and twenty. Primary data was collected from farmers using a pre-tested interview schedule. Secondary data related to the study was collected from Krishi bhavan, Grama panchayat and other governmental and non-governmental agencies As pineapple was cultivated as a ratoon crop for three years in the study area, the cost of cultivation of pineapple for three years was estimated based on ABC cost concepts. The Cost C for first, second and third year of pineapple cultivation was estimated as ₹ 7,29,831, ₹ 4,16,654 and ₹ 4,00,295 respectively. During the first year, major share of cost A2 was contributed by cost of suckers followed by cost of human labour. The returns of pineapple in the study area were estimated as ₹ 9,55,350, ₹ 7,99,054 and ₹ 5,03,822 for first, second and third year respectively. Benefit cost ratio of pineapple farming at cost C for first, second and third years were estimated as 1.32, 1.95 and 1.28 respectively. The volatility in price of ripe and green pineapple was studied using Generalized Auto-Regressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity (GARCH) model. It was studied for three periods viz; pre Covid (Jan 2017 to March 2020), Covid-post Covid (March 2020 to September 2022) and overall period (Jan 2017 to September 2022). It was found that the prices of both ripe and green pineapple showed a higher persistence of volatility in Covid and post Covid period compared to other periods. Among the green and ripe pineapple prices, higher volatility was observed in prices of green pineapple compared to ripe pineapple for all the periods. The coefficient of variation (CV) was used to study the volatility in the production of pineapple in the Ernakulam district and it was estimated as 16.88 per cent. The S value of Mann-Kendall trend test was calculated as -0.397, which indicated a significant negative trend over the years in the production of pineapple in Ernakulam district. The Cuddy-Della Valle Instability indices of area, production and productivity of pineapple in the study area was estimated as 10.26, 6.09 and 7.23 respectively. Standardized Covid -19 Risk Perception Index (SCovRPI) was developed to assess the risk perception of pineapple farmers during Covid 19. Fourteen major risks faced by farmers during Covid 19 were identified and ranked from one to fourteen, based on their SCovRPI values. Realisation of low price, restriction in transportation, low demand for pineapple in market, disruption in farming activities and nonavailability of adequate labour were the major risks perceived by pineapple farmers during Covid 19 period. Pineapple farmers and other value chain players were interviewed to identify the existing value chain operations and possible disruptions of pineapple value chain during Covid 19 lockdown. Low demand in market, labour shortages, restrictions in transportation, lack of proper storage facility, limited facility for processing and value addition and export restrictions were identified as the major factors causing disruptions in pineapple value chain. Binary logistic regressions were used to ascertain the impact of pineapple farmers’ socio-economic traits on the farmer’s adoption of adaptation strategies and the result suggested that family size, area of leased land and rent paid for leased land had a significant impact on farmers’ adoption of “reduction in cultivated area” as an adaptation strategy and age of the farmer and annual income had a significant influence on farmers choices on “reduced use of input”. Likewise, farmers adoption of ‘sale of fixed assets’ as an adaptation strategy was significantly influenced by the age of farmer, experience in farming, area of leased in land and lease amount. Price volatility and lack of sufficient processing and marketing facilities were the major problems faced by pineapple farmers during Covid 19. Setting up more processing units and rejuvenating the existing processing units in the study area may help the farmers from the volatility of prices. The exploitation of export opportunities and utilization of the Geographic Indication (GI) status of Vazhakulam pineapple would help the farmers to open new marketing opportunities and realisation of higher prices for their produce. An increase in the procurement of pineapple by the government and revising the base prices fixed by the government to at least 20-22 / kg may also be helpful for pineapple farmers to overcome the difficulties of Covid 19.Item Irrigation water: assessing the economic efficiency and its pricing in banana(Department of agricultural economics, college of agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2023-07-24) Midhuna, Sivanandan; Hema, MItem Economic evaluation of integrated pest management in rice in Palakkad district(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2023-05-25) Vaishnav, S; Prema, APaddy (Oryza sativa L.), is one of the most important cereal crops in the world and the primary food source for more than 60 per cent of the world's population. A host of pests and diseases constrains the production and productivity of paddy. Pesticides and fungicides are widely used to control such pests and diseases. However, the indiscriminate and unscientific use of chemical pesticides in agriculture has several detrimental effects. To overcome these constraints and thereby realize crops' yield potential, integrated pest management (IPM) strategy can be adopted. IPM means the careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest population; keep pesticide and other interventions to economically justified levels; and reduce or minimize risks to human health and the environment (FAO, 2020). The studies regarding the economics of IPM in comparison to conventional practices are scanty in India, especially in Kerala. In this context, the study was carried out with the specific objectives viz. to assess the economics of IPM in rice, to study the extent of adoption of IPM in rice by farmers and to determine society's willingness to pay to reduce the risk associated with pesticide use. The study was based on primary data collected from the respondents of Alathur, Kuzhalmannam and Malampuzha blocks of the Palakkad district. Alathur block was purposively selected as the area where IPM has been practised since 2018 as part of the AICRP-BCCP project of KAU in rice. For assessing the economics of rice cultivation of IPM adopters as well as the extent of adoption of IPM, 30 farmers were randomly selected from the Alathur block. The economics of rice cultivation under the conventional method of pest management was studied by surveying 30 farmers chosen randomly from both Kuzhalmannam and Malampuzha blocks. The society's willingness to pay towards the reduction in risk associated with pesticide use ii was elucidated by randomly interviewing 120 general public from Palakkad district. Thus, the total sample size for the study came to be 180. IPM farms were assessed to have a total cost of cultivation of Rs. 132596 per ha, which was 2.68 per cent less than the non-IPM group's estimated cost of Rs. 136240. The paddy yield showed that IPM farmers harvested more (60.03 quintals/ha) than their non-IPM counterparts (59.16 quintals/ha), resulting in an extra return of Rs 4963 and a net profit of Rs. 8608 per ha. IPM farmers' gross income was 2.88 per cent more (Rs. 177153) than non-IPM farmers (Rs. 172190). The cost of production per kg was found to be Rs. 23 in the non-IPM and Rs. 22 in the IPM. Additionally, it showed that for every rupee invested in paddy output, IPM and non-IPM farmers received benefits of Rs. 1.34 and Rs. 1.27, respectively. It was found that, on average, 80 per cent of all farmers adopted cultural methods, followed by mechanical and biological control methods, which accounted for 45.84 per cent and 45 per cent of all farmers, respectively. A positive thing was observed that the farmers resorted to chemical methods only after consultation with the respective Agricultural Officers in the Krishi Bhavans. Weights were assigned to each practice among the different IPM components as per their contribution to pest management, and a final adoption score was obtained for each sample farmer, and they were classified into low, medium and high adopters accordingly. It was seen that most of the sample farmers (63.33%) were medium adopters of IPM practices. The results from multiple regression analysis found formal training of farmers on IPM practices, their experience in IPM farming and income were positive and significant impacts on the adoption of IPM practices by the paddy farmers. A year wise comparison of different pest and predator population between the IPM and non-IPM plots in Alathur block was made. It was observed that in every year from 2018 to 2022, the amount of pest population and damage caused by pests in IPM plots was comparatively much lesser than that in non-IPM plots. It was also observed that the population of parasitoids and other predators like spiders, Ophionea sp. were higher in IPM plots. Within the IPM plots, a trend of increasing number of predator population was also observed over the years. This shows the cumulative or long term iii effect of implementing IPM technology in the fields. It was clear that implementing IPM practices in the field lead to an eventual decrease in the pest population and an increase in the predator population. The consumers were generally willing to spend an extra amount of Rs. 6.92 per kg for the finished product. Logistic regression analysis used to determine the contribution of independent variables to the consumers' willingness to pay showed that the consumer's age, annual income, perceived benefits from IPM and monthly rice consumption had a positive, significant impact on WTP. The monthly expenditure of the consumer had a significant negative relation with WTP. Although having a positive relation, education of consumers showed no significant impact on WTP. The major constraints faced by farmers adopting and not adopting IPM were identified. The constraints of IPM farmers were high labour cost, climate changes, less knowledge about ETL, less persistence in the field, complex nature of IPM and low initial production.The constraints faced by non-IPM farmers included a lack of belief in IPM, lack of technical guidance, lack of cooperation, non-availability of inputs in local markets, complex nature of IPM and climate changes. Paddy cultivation was found to be more profitable with the adoption of IPM technology. Also, most of the respondents expressed concerns about the harmful effects of the excessive use of chemicals. This highlights the much-needed emphasis on popularising IPM practices. There is a need to ensure the timely availability of inputs and capacity-building programmes for producing bio-agents and bio-pesticides among farmer collectives. The government should also provide financial support so that more and more farmers adopt the technology.Item Assessment of agricultural loss due to 2018 flood to farm households in the flood pains of Chalakudy river(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Femi Elizabeth George; Prema, ADisaster-induced economic damage has been increasing in the past few decades and is likely to continue growing because of urban development, population growth and ecosystem alteration. The state Kerala, with its location along the sea coast with a steep gradient along the slopes of the Western Ghats is highly vulnerable to natural disasters. Floods are the most common natural hazard in the State. Kerala encountered the most exceedingly awful floods in its history since 1924, between June 1st and August 19th of 2018. The state‟s economy and a large number of agriculture dependent rural households, most of which are involved in subsistence agriculture, are found to have borne the brunt of the unprecedented deluge and its aftermath. It is in this context that the present study entitled „Assessment of agricultural loss due to 2018 Flood to farm households in the flood plains of Chalakudy river‟ was undertaken. Damage and Loss Assessment (DaLA) methodology given by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 2012 was used for the damage and loss assessment with appropriate modifications. The term damage in the study means destruction (total or partial) of physical assets, while the term loss indicates the change in economic flows arising from the disaster. The study was conducted selecting 10 panchayats across three blocks, viz. Chalakudy and Mala blocks in Thrissur district and Parakkadavu block in Ernakulam district. Both primary as well as the secondary data were used for the study, however, the study was based mostly on primary data. The assessment of disaster effects on the farm households along the flood plains of the river with respect to damage and loss suffered to crops, assets and livestock showed that on an average a farm household in the flood plain has suffered a damage of ₹12,837 to agricultural assets, while the damage suffered was ₹75,538 for seasonal crops and ₹9,391 for perennial crops. With respect to livestock and poultry, on an average a farm household has suffered a damage of ₹12,216. Crop loss to the individual farm households as the crops were either damaged/lost or the production declined was also estimated. The results revealed that on an average a farm household xxx in the flood plain has suffered a loss of ₹1,59,469 from seasonal crops and ₹1,52,358 from totally destroyed perennial crops and ₹32,854 from partially destroyed perennial crops. The result suggested that it is the loss from seasonal crops which was accounted as investment loss contributed the most to the total loss suffered by a farm household. The assessment of disaster effects in the flood plains of the river with respect to damage and loss suffered to crops, assets and livestock showed that the flood plain has suffered a damage of ₹7.32 crores to agricultural assets, while the damage suffered was ₹43.10 crores for seasonal crops and ₹5.36 crores for perennial crops. The flood plain has lost about ₹6.97 crores due to the death of livestock and poultry. An estimation of the agricultural loss was also carried out in the flood plains as almost all the households reported losses from seasonal crops and perennial crops. The study showed that the flood plain has suffered a loss of ₹90.85 crores from seasonal crops and ₹86.72 crores from totally destroyed perennial crops and ₹18.55 crores from partially destroyed perennial crops. The study concluded that the flood plain has lost about ₹258.87 crores to the 2018 Kerala floods. An attempt was made to analyse the resilience level of the affected farmers. In the study wherein resilience was taken as the ability of the farmer to continue next season cropping, it was found that the sample respondents on an average showed a resilience of 0.48 in a scale of zero to one. Risk orientation, level of indebtedness, insurance, relief fund, savings, other losses and damage level were found to be the important perceived factors that help in building resilience with importance of these factors in the order mentioned above. The results of logistic regression to understand the influence of socio-economic variables on resilience suggested that while education and subsidiary occupation positively influenced the resilience, family size and crop diversification index was found to have a negative influence. Major hardships faced by the respondents were identified as flooded house, crop loss, disruption in power supply, inadequate transportation facilities, field inundation, disrupted communication services, loss of labour days and non-availability of drinking water. Keeping in view the inconsistencies with regard to the xxxi xxxi estimated flood impact to agriculture and the corresponding reported values by the Government offices, adopting standardized methodological approach based on internationally approved frame work for assessing the impact of disasters on agriculture was suggested as the major policy intervention. Understanding the importance of having a subsidiary income in building the farmer resilience, encouraging farmers to take up different crop related and other enterprises was the other major policy intervention suggested.Item Studies on the economics of production of nendran banana(Faculty of Agricultural economics ,Regional post graduate training centre , Agricultural college and research institute, Coimbatore, 1965) Achuthan, VItem Price behaviour of turmeric in India(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2011) Jyothi, T; Jesy Thomas, KThe present study on the "Price behaviour of turmeric in India" was undertaken with the specific objective of investigating the secular trend, seasonality, cyclical and irregular movements in the price of turmeric in India and to evolve a reliable price forecasting model for turmeric.' The study was conducted during the year 2010-11 with reference to three major markets in the country viz., Kochi, Nizamabad and Erode markets employing secondary data. With reference to CGR of area, production and productivity of turmeric at All- India level, compared to pre- WTO regime, the rate of growth in area and productivity of turmeric showed declining trend during post- WTO regime and hence, growth rate in production also showed declining trend. Both in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh, the crop has not received due attention during post- WTO regime compared to pre- WTO regime, as indicated by the declining trends in terms of area, production and productivity. However, in Tamil Nadu, the crop witnessed insignificant growth rates in terms of area, production and productivity of turmeric during both pre- WTO and post- WTO regimes. Despite slow growth in production of turmeric in the era of liberalized regime, India enjoyed favourable net trade position, as indicated by the significant positive growth rates in the exports of turmeric in terms of quantity, value and unit price compared to import scenario. Further, the instability in exports of turmeric declined during post- WTO regime compared to pre- WTO regime, as indicated by the fall in CV. However, there is much scope to increase the export prospects ofturmeric, as even today, India's export basket comprises of fresh produce only rather than processed products. This favourable net trade position is further confirmed by the low NPCsindicating that, India enjoys more export competitiveness for turmeric in the international market. Regarding price behaviour, the analysis based on single exponential method revealed that, in Kochi and Erode markets, turmeric prices showed greater degree of fluctuations up to September 2007 and the period beyond October, 2007 represents growth phase in turmeric prices. For turmeric (bulb) and turmeric (finger) in Nizamabad market, prices have not shown a specific trend, implying a greater degree of price volatality for these commodities. Market integration study was conducted considering the spot prices of turmeric at the selected markets by employing the Johansen multiple eo integration analysis. The two eo-integration equations were found to be significant at five per cent level, indicating that, the selected markets are having long run equilibrium relationship. Seasonal indices of turmeric prices computed through employing ratio to moving average method revealed that, the domestic prices of turmeric exhibited considerable seasonality in all the selected markets. The seasonal price behaviour further inferred that, it was almost similar among Kochi and Erode markets because of their proximity, while it was totally different for the Nizarnabad market, as it is distantly separated compared to the earlier two markets. Cyclical variations in turmeric prices are more pronounced in all the selected markets. In Kochi market, the length of the cycle lasted for about six years, seven years for turmeric bulb and finger prices in Nizamabad market and six to seven years in Erode market. Turmeric prices were subjected to considerable irregular variations and these are due to supply shocks on account of climatic variations or market shocks on account of demand shocks or high speculative factors. Different pnce forecasting methods were employed VlZ., double exponential smoothing (Nizamabad and Erode markets) and Winters' multiplicative method and Winters' additive method (Ko chi market) for price forecasting of turmeric during the months of March, April and May, 2011 and the findings revealed that, the modal prices of three months fall in the range of forecasted prices across all the markets indicating that, the price forecasts were reliable. The accuracy percentage of turmeric price forecast ranges from 90 to 99 per cent. The prices so forecasted across the markets are validated for the same period and the findings revealed that, the monthly modal prices of selected commodity fall within the range of predicted prices. The accuracy percentage of price forecast is above 90 for the reference commodity and this implies that the forecast is reliable in all the selected markets. Considering the above findings with reference to production and trading scenarios of turmeric, it is essential to formulate multi-pronged strategy such as strengthening R&D to develop and release HYV of turmeric and fine tune the crop production strategies with reference to different agro-ecological situations, strengthening processing, storage and market information network, effective implementation of Market Intervention Scheme, improving the acces:; of farmers towards futures markets to overcome price risk, quality enhancement of turmeric on the lines of SPS standards fixed by the importing countries, price forecasting to regulate area and production of turmeric in tune of its export prospects etc., so as to enhance both domestic and export competitiveness and to gain due share in the international market.Item Formation and efficient estimation of stochastic frontier production functions(Department of agricultural statistics, College of horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2013) Dhanesh, N J; Krishnan, STechnological change and efficiency improvement are important sources of productivity growth in any economy. The concept of technical efficiency (TE) is based on input and output relationships. Technical inefficiency arises when actual or observed output from a given input mix is less than a possible mix. The analysis of technical efficiency involves the assessment of the degree to which the production technologies are utilized. The present investigation on “Formation and efficient estimation of stochastic frontier production functions” was carried out in the Department of Agricultural Statistics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara during 2010-13, to assess the present economics of pepper cultivation, to formulate new stochastic frontier production functions and to compare them. The secondary data collected from the Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara on area of holdings, number of vines, yield, expenses for machinary, labour, manure, and other expenses for the cultivation of pepper in the three blocks viz; Mananthavady, Kalpetta and Bathery were used for the analysis. The summary statistics revealed that irrespective of the blocks, the expenditure on labour was the highest followed by expenditure on manure and it was increasing according to the increase in age of plants. For the stochastic frontier production model to be realistic, exact measurement of the cost of the inputs as also the realized output is extremely necessary. Very few farmers keep records of the expenditure incurred on the various inputs and very rarely the output realized. Vegetable crops have a short duration. So the farmer will be in a position to give realistic figures regarding the various inputs as also the outputs. As regards plantation crops, there will be a lag right from establishment of the crop to the steady bearing stage. Therefore, it will be very difficult to trace back the exact cost, as no records would be available about the costs incurred. A rapid estimation survey is the only feasibility where in simultaneous estimation of the costs involved at from the nursery through the various stages of growth can be observed. Since a farmer who is already having a steady bearing crop, would have incurred lesser costs through the previous stages of growth of the crop, it is most feasible to use the concept of present worth to arrive at exact costs of previous stages of the crop. The stochastic frontier analysis was done using the present value (PV) as also with the present cost. The stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) was done for all the three blocks compounding all the costs starting from the nursery stage (First age group) up to the steady bearing stage (Fourth age group) using PV. The mean technical efficiency was observed to be 0.93, 0.91 and 0.94 for Mananthavady, Kalpetta and Bathery Blocks respectively. The stochastic frontier approach for each age group by pooling over the blocks, were also worked out using PV and it revealed a mean technical efficiency of 0.95 and 0.92 for the plantations in the third and fourth age groups respectively. To assess the factors influencing technical efficiency, the regression of TE on the factors like area of holdings, number of vines, cost for implements and machinary, labour, manure and other expenses was fitted for each block. About 91 per cent of the variation in technical efficiency could be explained using these variables. When the area of holdings increased, the technical efficiency seemed to decrease. With proper labour management, the technical efficiency can be significantly improved.Item Income savings and capital formation in farm households of Kodakara development block(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1996) Prema, A; Thomas, E KItem Economics of commercial production and utilisation of medicinal rice (Oryza sativa L.) Njavara(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2003) Jayakumar, V; Indira Devi, PThe present study on the economics of commercial production and utilization of medicinal rice, njavara was conducted ill Thrissur, Palakkad, Malappuram and Wayanad districts, with the objective of assessing the economics of production and .. marketing prospects of njavara and documenting the Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) associated with its cultivation and use. The required information was collected from a sample of 60 njavara farmers from the above four districts by personal interview method using well structured, pre- tested questionnaire. The marketing aspects were studied by contacting producers, market intermediaries and end users, by personal in.erview method. The Indigenous Technical Knowledge were gathered from the producers, traditional vaidyas, ayurvedic medical practitioners and elderly people in the locality. The data collection was conducted during April- July 2003 . The cost of cultivation of njavara (Cost C3) was estimated as Rs.14059/hectare.The district wise analysis revealed that it was the highest for Malappuram and lowest for Palakkad, whereas in class wise analysis it was higher for • class I than class II The cost incurred on seeds was Rs.1860.87/hectare. Human labour was the highest single item of expenditure. The average labour use per hectare of njavara . cultivation was 72.50 man days/hectare. Female labour constituted a major share of total labour use. On an average it was 56.55 days/hectare during a crop cycle. Except land preparation all major activities are carried out by wemen. Post harvest operations demand the highest labour use. But, land preparation is the most expensive activity, as the wage rate for men was higher than that of the women. Nearly one fourth of the total cost was for this. Average yield from njavara crop was found to be much less than other rice varieties (1528.25 kg/hectare). It is only 70 percentage of the average yield of rice in the state. The yield in Palakkad and Malappuram districts were higher than the other two. Large farms enjoyed better yield The grain to straw yield was in the ratio of 1 :2.5. The Gross income from the crop was found to be RS.28928/ha. Farm business income, the most relevant from the farmer's' point of view was more in PaIakkad district (Rs.30416/hectare) compared to other districts. The same applies to all other income estimates. The farmers of Palakkad enjoy a net income of RS.23487/hectare while the average was Rs. 14849/hectare. The cost of production was Rs.7.68/kg.• Despite the lowest cost of cultivation, the cost of production was (at Cost Ci) highest in Wayanad (Rs.9.92/kg). The average benefit cost ratio based on cost C3was 2.03.1t was the highest for Palakkad (2.72) The marketable surplus accounted for 90.33 per cent (1380.50 kg/hectare) of the total produce and it increased with the increase in the size of holding. In the study area six major marketing channels were identified. Among this the most witlely adopted channel was I producer-s ayurvedic drug manufacturing unit (around 28 per cent). The Indigenous Technical Knowledge associated with the cultivation and use of the crop is compiled and listed.