1. KAUTIR (Kerala Agricultural University Theses Information and Retrieval)
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Item Design and analysis of best-worst scaling studies in agricultural research(Department of Agricultural Statistics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2026) Anjana Bivas, TThe research study entitled “Design and analysis of Best-Worst Scaling studies in agricultural research” was undertaken at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during 2023-2025. The primary objective of the study was to develop a comprehensive web application for designing suitable questionnaires and analysing data for Best-Worst Scaling (BWS) experiments in agriculture, guided by insights obtained from a bibliometric analysis of agricultural studies employing the BWS approach. In agriculture, effective decision-making depends on understanding the preferences and priorities of various stakeholders, including farmers, consumers, researchers, and policymakers. Traditional preference elicitation techniques often fall short in capturing subtle distinctions among choices. BWS offers a robust alternative for quantifying stakeholder preferences across domains such as technology adoption, agricultural policies, consumer behaviour, and resource prioritisation. A bibliometric analysis of agricultural BWS literature from 2011 to 2025 was conducted to identify how BWS has been applied, the experimental situations where the three cases of BWS are adopted, commonly used design methodologies, and the analytical approaches used. These findings provided clarity on current practices and guided what features and analytical capabilities needed to be prioritised in the system development for this research. Despite its growing use, researchers often face challenges in designing BWS questionnaires and analysing the resulting data, particularly when dealing with multiple attributes, complex profiles, or multi-profile choice sets. Manual generation of choice sets can be time-consuming and prone to errors, while advanced analytical models require considerable statistical expertise. These challenges underscore the need for an accessible and efficient tool to streamline both stages of BWS research. To address this gap, the web application, named PEAR-BWS (Preference Evaluation in Agricultural Research using Best-Worst Scaling), was developed using the R Shiny framework. It consists of two core modules, Questionnaire Generation and Statistical Analysis, offering an integrated environment for generating BWS questionnaires and analysing response data, without the need for programming skills. The Questionnaire Generation module enables users to build BWS-based choice sets for all three BWS cases (Object, Profile, and Multi-profile), ensuring balanced representation of items and profiles. The Statistical Analysis module integrates multiple analytical approaches, including Count Analysis, Multinomial Logit, Paired, Marginal, Marginal Sequential, Hierarchical Bayesian estimation, and Latent Class Analysis models. All questionnaire structures and analysis results generated from both modules can be downloaded as Word documents, facilitating direct use in research reporting, thesis writing, publication work, and field data collection. To demonstrate its analytical capabilities, three hypothetical model datasets were constructed for the three BWS cases, reflecting realistic response structures and consistent scoring (1 for best, -1 for worst, and 0 for others). An online survey conducted among students from different agricultural universities evaluated the usability and performance of the application. The feedback indicated a high level of user satisfaction, highlighting its efficiency and practical relevance. Overall, the study presents PEAR-BWS as a comprehensive and user-friendly tool that simplifies the design and analysis of BWS experiments, thereby enhancing accessibility and promoting evidence-based decision-making in agricultural research. The work provides a foundation that can be further expanded in the future by integrating more analytical methods with enhanced visualisation and direct data collection functionality within the web application.Item Exploring the potential of spent mushroom substrate extract from pleurotus spp. for the management of leaf blight of amaranthus (Amaranthus tricolor L.)(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2026) Devika, B S; Heera, GThe study entitled “Exploring the potential of spent mushroom substrate extract from Pleurotus spp. for the management of leaf blight of amaranthus (Amaranthus tricolor L.)” was conducted at Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2023-2025 with the objectives of evaluation of the efficacy of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) extract for the suppression of the leaf blight of amaranthus; and detection of associated biomolecule(s). The pathogen was isolated from the diseased amaranthus leaf and its pathogenicity was proved by Koch’s postulates. Cultural and morphological studies of the pathogen on potato dextrose agar medium revealed hyaline to brown, septate mycelia with right-angled branching and formation of white to brown irregular sclerotia after eight days of inoculation. Molecular characterization using LSU primers (LROR and LR7) validated the isolate as Rhizoctonia solani with accession number (PX411474). Pure culture of Pleurotus florida, P. ostreatus and P. sajor-caju were obtained from ICAR- DMR, Solan. Mushrooms were cultivated in paddy straw. Spent mushroom substrate, the by-product after cultivation (45 days), was collected from these three species of oyster mushroom. The spent substrates were shade dried, powdered and used for further studies. The nutrient analysis revealed that all SMS samples were rich in nutrients. Macronutrient analysis indicated that SMS of P. ostreatus contained the highest nitrogen (1.77%), potassium (1.40 ppm), and calcium (2.1%) contents, while SMS of P. florida had the highest phosphorus (0.16%) and magnesium (1.26%) levels, while the sulphur (0.61%) content was more for paddy straw (control). Among the micronutrients, boron concentration was highest in SMS of P. ostreatus (82 ppm), while zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and copper (Cu) concentrations were similar among all the treatments. These findings suggest that SMS has substantial nutrient value and can serve as a potential organic fertilizer. Water extracts of SMS (1:3 w/v) was prepared from each Pleurotus spp. after shaking the powdered SMS for 24-48 h in an incubator cum shaker, filtered and centrifuged at 10000 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant obtained was utilised as the crude extract which was evaluated against R. solani by poisoned food technique at different concentrations (250 ppm, 500 ppm, and 1000 ppm). Significant antifungal activity was observed in all the treatments. When compared to the control, at 250 ppm concentration of the extract, the radial growth of R. solani ranged from 0.58 to 1.82 cm in all the treated plates. The water extract of SMS (P. florida) treated plates showed complete mycelial inhibition (100%) of R. solani at 500 ppm and 1000 ppm concentrations, while the water extract of SMS (P. ostreatus) exhibited complete suppression of mycelial growth at 1000 ppm. The water extract of SMS (P. sajor- caju) was less effective with an inhibition percentage of 53 even at 1000 ppm concentration. Mycelial characters of R. solani in the treated plates was irregular and sparse compared to the dense, zonations in control. These results indicated that the SMS of Pleurotus spp., particularly P. florida, possesses potent antifungal compounds capable of inhibiting R. solani growth. A pot culture experiment was laid out in completely randomized design (CRD) to assess the efficacy of extracts of SMS, with 13 treatments and 3 replications, including foliar and soil applications of SMS extracts (0.2%), chemical (mancozeb @0.2%), biological control (Pseudomonas fluorescens @20 g/L) check, inoculated and absolute controls. Among different treatments, the foliar application and soil drenching with SMS extract (P. florida -T7) recorded the lowest Percent Disease Index (PDI) and lesion size, followed by foliar application and soil drenching of SMS extract of P. ostreatus (T8). The highest PDI (56.5%) was observed in the inoculated control (T12). Plants treated with SMS extracts delayed the symptom development and reduction in lesion size. In addition to disease suppression, significant enhancement was observed in the growth and yield attributes of the plants. SMS treated plants exhibited increased shoot and root length, higher fresh and dry biomass, compared to the untreated controls. Enhanced shoot and root biomass, and increased overall yield, were noted in SMS treated plants, particularly in T4 (soil drenching of P. ostreatus extract) and T7 (foliar spray + soil drenching of SMS extract (P. florida). The total yield was the maximum in T4 (soil drenching of P. ostreatus- 82 g/pot), whereas the highest plant height (47.5 cm) was observed in the case of T5 (foliar spray of SMS extract of P. sajor -caju). Biochemical assays carried out at 0,1,3,5,7 days after inoculation of the pathogen revealed significant enhancement in defense related enzymes viz., peroxidase (PO), polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) in the SMS treated amaranthus plants after the inoculation of the pathogen. The highest activities of PO and PPO were recorded in T7, while PAL activity peaked in the treatment T8. Gas Chromatography- Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) analysis of ethyl acetate extracts of SMS revealed the presence of various classes of bioactive metabolites including phenols, fatty acids, sterols, terpenoids and esters. Common bioactive compounds detected in the three Pleurotus spp. included phenolic compounds, terpenes, fatty acids and carboxylic acids, with reported antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. The present study demonstrated that SMS extracts of Pleurotus spp., particularly P. florida, possess strong antifungal potential against R. solani causing leaf blight of amaranthus. The extracts were rich in essential nutrients and bioactive compounds capable of suppressing pathogen growth, inducing plant defense responses, and promoting overall plant growth and vigor. Therefore, SMS extracts represent a promising, eco-friendly alternative to synthetic fungicides for the management of leaf blight of amaranthus.Item Nodule associated bacteria for plant growth promotion and nodulation enhancement in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp(Department of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2026) Jaiba EvansThe study entitled ‘Nodule associated bacteria for plant growth promotion and nodulation enhancement in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp)’ was carried out at the Department of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram, with the objective to isolate and characterize nodule associated bacteria from different varieties of cowpea and assess their nodulation efficiency and plant growth promotion in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp). Root nodules of leguminous plants harbour diverse microbial communities that play crucial roles in nitrogen fixation and plant growth promotion. In this study, nodule- associated bacteria were isolated from healthy root nodules collected from different varieties of cowpea from various locations in the (AEU 8) southern laterites of Kerala. Surface-sterilized nodules were crushed aseptically, and the suspension was serially diluted and plated on different media including Yeast Extract Mannitol Agar (YEMA), Nutrient agar, N free malate bromothymol blue media, Tryptic soy agar, Burk’s medium, Jensen’s medium. The seventy-four isolates were purified and characterized based on colony morphology and Gram reaction. Of these, thirty-four morphologically distinct isolates were selected for further studies. The Indole Acetic Acid (IAA), Gibberellic acid (GA), Extracellular Ammonia (ECA) production, presence or absence of growth on N-free medium, phosphate solubilization potential and cellulolytic activity of the thirty-four bacterial isolates were assessed. The selected isolates produced IAA in the range of 2.64 μg mL-1 (NAB 57) to 63.98 μg mL-1 (NAB 1) of culture filtrate in the absence of tryptophan and 5.12 μg mL- 1 (NAB 63) to 98.18 μg mL-1 (NAB 1) in the presence of tryptophan. The isolate NAB 42 recorded significantly higher gibberellic acid production of 62.24 μg mL-1 and NAB 14 recorded highest extracellular ammonia production of 11.29 μmol mL−1. The isolate NAB 43 exhibited maximum cellulolytic activity of 5.45 and NAB 57 showed maximum phosphate solubilization potential of 4.6. Among these isolates NAB 1, NAB 2, NAB 42 and NAB 43 were showed growth on N-free medium. Plant growth promotion potential in cowpea was assessed by roll towel assay using standard protocol and NAB 2 exhibited the highest germination rate of 85.3% and longest root length (22.78 cm), while NAB 15 demonstrated the longest shoot length (19.81cm). The highest seedling vigour index (4121.5) was recorded for NAB 2, compared to 2223.75 in the control. Weighted average ranking was done and eleven isolates were selected for further experiments. Selected isolates were co-cultured with beneficial microbes, including rhizobial and non-rhizobial endophytes, to assess compatibility and mutual influence on growth and metabolic activity. The combinations exhibited compatibility with each other and with other beneficial microbes. Dual culture plate assay and agar well diffusion assay were employed to assess the antagonistic potential of the 34 isolates against Pythium sp., Fusarium oxysporum, Sclerotium rolfsii, and Rhizoctonia solani. Isolates NAB 51 and NAB 27 showed the maximum inhibitory activity against Fusarium oxysporum, while NAB 27 was most effective against Rhizoctonia solani. NAB 33 exhibited the maximum inhibition against Sclerotium rolfsii, and NAB 42 showed maximum antagonistic activity against Pythium sp. The maximum siderophore production was observed in NAB 2 as indicated by orange halo zone around the colony on CAS agar. All isolates produced volatile organic compounds, with NAB 2 exhibiting the maximum level and only one isolate NAB 43 tested positive for hydrogen cyanide (HCN) production. The growth performance and nodulation efficiency of the test cowpea plants were evaluated under controlled conditions using Leonard’s jar assemblies. Inoculated treatments with Rhizobium exhibited a marked improvement in growth and nodulation parameters compared to uninoculated controls. Among the isolates, strain NAB 2 recorded the significant increase in plant height (30.25 cm), root length (19.2 cm), shoot weight (4.35g), root weight (0.76g), nodule number (16), nodule weight (0.07g) compared to uninoculated controls, indicating effective symbiotic performance. Based on the results of the studies on plant growth promotion and nodulation enhancement, the isolates NAB 2 and NAB 43 were selected for pot culture experiment. Morphological and biochemical characterization of the isolates revealed that the two isolates were Gram-negative, rods. The 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed maximum sequence similarity of the isolates with Stenotrophomonas hibscicola (NAB 2) and Enterobacter quasiroggenkampii (NAB 43). A pot culture experiment was carried out to assess the effectiveness of selected nodule-associated bacterial (NAB) isolates, both individually and in combination with Rhizobium, in promoting plant growth and improving nodulation in cowpea variety Anaswara by seed biopriming. The experimental design was Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with six treatments, each replicated four times. Among the NAB isolates, Stenotrophomonas hibiscicola NAB 2 in combination with Rhizobium sp. showed superior performance, significantly enhancing plant growth, yield, and nodulation parameters. This treatment resulted in the highest plant height, leaf and branch number, shoot and root biomass, root development, pod yield, and nodule number and weight, indicating its strong potential for improving crop productivity. The study concluded that the selected nodule-associated bacterial isolate NAB 2, particularly when used in combination with Rhizobium sp., significantly enhanced plant growth and nodulation in cowpea var. Anaswara. These findings suggest that co- inoculation of Stenotrophomonas hibscicola NAB 2 with Rhizobium sp. RZB1 can serve as an effective bioinoculant strategy to improve legume productivity and promote sustainable agriculture.Item Socio -cultural valuation of ecosystem services in paddy wetlands of Kuttanad(Department of Agricultural Extension Education, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2026) Shraddha, S; Razia FathimaThe research work entitled “Socio-cultural valuation of ecosystem services in paddy wetlands of Kuttanad” was conducted during the academic year 2023–25 to understand how local farming communities perceive, value, and interact with the multiple ecosystem services provided by the unique below-sea-level agro-ecosystem of Kuttanad. The study examined stakeholder perceptions of socio-cultural dimensions of ecosystem services, identified key drivers affecting these services, assessed the impact of land-use and cropping pattern changes, and analysed the sense of connectedness farmers retain toward their wetland environment, recognising that the paddy tracts simultaneously deliver provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural functions essential to livelihood security and ecological resilience. To address these objectives, an ex post facto research design was adopted since perceptions, ecological conditions, and cultural values exist independently of researcher intervention. The study was carried out across the districts of Alappuzha, Kottayam, and Pathanamthitta, selecting blocks with the largest paddy area, followed by random selection of six villages and six padasekharams. A total of 180 farmers formed the study sample, and data were collected using a structured, pre-tested interview schedule and focus group discussions. A wide range of analytical tools, including the RII, Kruskal– Wallis test, Dunn’s test, Garrett ranking, Kendall’s W, Spearman correlation, Mann– Whitney U test, PCA, multiple regression, and ANOVA, provided a comprehensive assessment of socio-cultural and ecological dimensions. The personal and socio-economic profile of the respondents revealed a marked demographic transition within the agricultural sector of Kuttanad. The farming population is predominantly ageing, with 62.22% of respondents between 51 and 73 years of age and 17.78% above 73 years, while only 20% were below 51 years. All respondents reported a complete withdrawal of youth from farming, indicating a looming crisis in generational continuity. The sector continues to be male-dominated, with 77.78% of farmers being men and women (22.22%) largely participating in supportive tasks rather than decision-making roles. Educational attainment was relatively high, with 40.56% having completed secondary schooling and 22.78% having reached the intermediate level, facilitating better understanding of extension messages. Economically, the foundation remains fragile as 58.33% are marginal farmers owning less than one hectare of land and 83.33% do not lease additional land, reflecting highly resource-constrained operations. Agricultural income was limited, with 58.89% earning below ₹1 lakh annually, reducing capacity to invest in improved or climate-resilient technologies. Institutional reliance was strong, evidenced by 68.33% maintaining regular contact with Krishibhavan staff and 85% availing farming subsidies, highlighting the critical role of public support in sustaining wetland agriculture. Results from the RII analysis showed that farmers placed the highest importance on provisioning and supporting services, particularly food production (RII = 0.992), groundwater recharge (0.857), and nutrient cycling (0.833), while services such as flood regulation, fish resources, and cultural rituals were perceived as less important (RII < 0.6). These patterns varied significantly across districts (p < 0.05), with Kottayam assigning greater value to provisioning, regulating, and supporting services and Pathanamthitta ranking highest for cultural services. Gender differences were significant for cultural services (χ² = 6.632; p = 0.01), with women placing greater emphasis on cultural and spiritual dimensions, while age-wise variations remained insignificant. Garrett’s ranking mirrored these findings, placing provisioning services first, followed by regulating, supporting, and cultural services, with a moderate-to-high level of agreement among respondents (Kendall’s W = 0.554; p < 0.001). Further analysis of Cultural Ecosystem Services revealed significant spatial differences in aesthetics, traditional agriculture, social and spiritual significance, education, and recreation, shaped by differences in tourism intensity, livelihood dependence, and cultural heritage. Principal Component Analysis extracted five major dimensions explaining 50 per cent of total variance, led by emotional and physical connection to the ecosystem (14.07%), cultural and artistic contributions (11.49%), and heritage and social interactions (9.69%). Together, these components highlight the deep-rooted emotional ties, artistic inspirations, historical memory, and traditional ecological knowledge that define the cultural foundation of the Kuttanad wetlands. Regression analysis showed that multiple categories of drivers significantly influenced ecosystem services. Among demographic factors, urbanisation (β = 0.304) and labour migration (β = 0.244) were the strongest predictors, while non-procurement of harvest (β = 0.214) and land conversion (β = 0.193) were the most influential economic drivers. Socio-political variables, including agricultural credit (β = 0.368), farming subsidies (β = 0.320), and decentralised governance policies (β = 0.284), exerted the greatest overall influence. Technological drivers such as short-duration varieties, mechanisation, and training were significant, while the loss of traditional practices (β = 0.571) emerged as a critical cultural driver. Environmental stressors such as flooding (β = 0.273) and soil acidity (β = 0.220) were major biophysical determinants affecting ecosystem functions. Correlation results further revealed that land-use change was positively associated with regulating (r = 0.256) and supporting services (r = 0.226), implying that awareness of ecological functions increases as environmental degradation intensifies. District-wise analysis showed a significant negative association between land-use change and cultural services in Kottayam (r = –0.265; p < 0.05), pointing to cultural erosion, while in Pathanamthitta, regulating services showed a positive association with land-use change (r = 0.309; p < 0.05), likely due to exposure to floods. Mann–Whitney U results indicated significant differences only for supporting services (p = 0.007), with farmers experiencing land-use changes assigning higher importance. The assessment of connectedness to nature revealed that farmers across all districts demonstrated medium-to-high levels of connectedness, reflecting strong ecological awareness and emotional attachment to the wetlands. Although Kottayam showed slightly higher connectedness scores, statistical tests confirmed no significant district-wise differences, suggesting that livelihood dependence and cultural identity foster a shared sense of belonging throughout the region. Overall, the findings demonstrate that farmers primarily value provisioning and supporting services that directly sustain their livelihoods, while cultural and regulating services receive comparatively less emphasis. Emotional attachment to the landscape remains strong, but active cultural practices are declining. The results highlight the crucial need for integrated wetland management that strengthens traditional knowledge, enhances ecological restoration, supports diversified livelihoods, and incorporates cultural values into policy frameworks. Sustaining the ecological and cultural resilience of the Kuttanad paddy wetlands will require coordinated institutional support and community participation.Item Fertigation regimes for seed rhizome production in ginger (Zingiber offcinale Roscoe)(Plantation,Spice,Medical and Aromatic Crops,Vellayani, 2026) Fathima HennaThe study entitled “Fertigation regimes for seed rhizome production in Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)” was carried out inside a naturally ventilated 400 m² polyhouse at RARS, Pattambi, during the period 2024–2025 (Kharif season), with the objective of evaluating the effect of different fertigation regimes on seed rhizome production in ginger. Throughout the growth period, polyhouse conditions averaged 75% relative humidity, 32–35 °C temperature and 4470–8040 lux light intensity during noon hours. The study used the ginger variety ‘Athira’, which was propagated through micro rhizomes obtained from the Centre for Plant Biotechnology and Molecular Biology (CPBMB), College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara. The plants were grown in polybags filled with solarized potting media (soil, sand, coir pith and farm yard manure in equal parts). The experiment was conducted using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with six fertigation regimes with three replications. The treatments consisted of the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF: 0.94:0.63:0.63 g NPK per plant) applied up to 300 days of planting following the conventional split schedule (T₁), RDF applied up to 240 days of planting using a modified split method (T₂), a 10% increase in RDF with the conventional split application (T₃), a 10% increase in RDF following the modified split schedule (T₄), a 20% increase in RDF under the conventional split application (T₅) and a 20% increase in RDF applied through the modified split method (T₆). Nutrients were supplied through fertigation using 19:19:19, urea, potassium nitrate and monoammonium phosphate. Data were collected on growth, physiological traits, quality attributes and rhizome characteristics. Plant growth parameters were recorded at monthly intervals. Observations were recorded on major growth parameters, including plant height, number of leaves per tiller, number of tillers, tiller diameter, leaf length, leaf width, leaf area, internodal length and the fresh and dry matter production of shoots and roots. Among the treatments, T2 (RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) recorded the highest tiller count (29.87). The T6 (20% higher RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) showed superiority in plant height (124.92 cm), leaf length (27.69 cm), leaf area (43.63 cm²) and also recorded the highest shoot fresh weight (746.67 g) and dry weight (121.67 g) at 180 days after planting (DAP). The T5 (20% increased RDF) produced the maximum number of leaves (27.80), the highest root fresh weight at 180 DAP (158.34 g) and at harvest (141.67 g), the highest root dry weight at 180 DAP (43.34 g) and the greatest tiller diameter (0.98 cm). The maximum internodal length (6.13 cm) was recorded in T3 (10% increased RDF), which was statistically on par with T2 (RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) (6.04 cm). Rhizome characters were analyzed at the 8 months after planting (MAP). Rhizome fresh and dry weights, finger numbers, finger length, finger girth, number of nodes per finger and internodal length of fingers were recorded at the time of harvest. The T₂ (RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) recorded the highest rhizome fresh weight (400.33 g), dry weight (85.00 g) and volume (368.00 cc). It produced the maximum number of primary (8.87) and secondary fingers (22.33), with the greatest finger length (12.34 cm in primary and 3.24 cm in secondary), girth (2.75 cm in primary and 1.74 cm in secondary), nodes per finger (21.35 in primary and 5.57 in secondary) and internodal length (0.80 cm in primary and 0.57 cm in secondary). The driage percentage of ginger at harvest was not significantly affected by the different fertigation regimes. Fertigation regimes significantly influenced leaf nutrient status at 5 MAP. The highest leaf nitrogen content was observed in T₅ (3.62 %), followed by T₆ (3.15 %). Phosphorus concentration was highest in T₂ (0.30 %), while potassium content was maximum in T₁ (3.35 %) and T₃ (3.28 %), which were statistically at par. Chlorophyll content was recorded at 5 MAP. T₆ recorded the highest chlorophyll a (1.39 mg g⁻¹), chlorophyll b (0.99 mg g⁻¹) and total chlorophyll (2.37 mg g⁻¹) contents. Quality parameters of rhizomes were recorded at harvest, with volatile oil content highest in T₄ and T₆ (3.25%) and oleoresin concentration highest in T₆ (7.65%). Senescence was observed at 240 DAP, with 100% flowering. Throughout the growing season, no occurrence of soft rot, bacterial wilt or pest infestation was recorded. The study concluded that, for ginger seed rhizome production under polyhouse conditions, a split application of 0.94:0.63:0.63 g NPK per plant up to 240 days of planting is the most effective fertigation regime. It optimizes rhizome yield by supplying nutrients during critical growth and bulking stages, whereas higher nutrient doses primarily enhance vegetative growth.Item Livelihood security through mixed farming among smallholder farmers in south kerala(Department of Agriculture Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2026) Athira kThe present study entitled “Livelihood security through mixed farming among smallholder farmers in South Kerala” was carried out during 2024-25 with three objectives: estimating the economics of crops and cattle rearing in mixed farming, optimising the crop–cattle mix for income enhancement and risk minimisation, and developing a composite livelihood security index for smallholder households. Mixed farming is the primary livelihood activity in South Kerala, where farmers work with very small landholdings and depend on both crops and cattle for a steady income, household food supply and overall stability. In the context of shrinking land size, rising costs and variable market prices, understanding how mixed farming contributes to livelihood security has become crucial. The study utilised both primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected from smallholder farmers through a structured and pre-tested interview schedule, while secondary information related to crops, livestock, and milk marketing was obtained from government sources and milk cooperatives. Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts of South Kerala were purposively selected for the study as they had the highest population of crossbred cattle in South Kerala. From each district, two blocks were chosen, namely Perumkadavila and Nemom in Thiruvananthapuram, and Anchal and Sasthamcotta in Kollam. From each block, 50 households practising mixed farming were randomly selected, giving a total sample size of 200 farmers. Farmers with a maximum operational landholding size of two hectares and owning up to three crossbred cows were selected as sample respondents. The economics of crop cultivation was analysed using the CACP cost concepts. Coconut recorded a Cost C of ₹2,18,153 per hectare and generated gross returns of ₹2,98,893 per hectare, with a B:C ratio of 1.37. Banana showed the highest profitability, with a Cost C of ₹3,95,653 per hectare and gross returns of ₹8,26,718 per hectare, resulting in a B:C ratio of 2.09. Tapioca recorded a Cost C of ₹2,33,185 per hectare, gross returns of ₹4,85,330 per hectare and a B:C ratio of 2.08. Fodder cultivation had a Cost C of ₹2,92,970 per hectare and gross returns of ₹5,65,194 per hectare, showing a ii B:C ratio of 1.90. Elephant foot yam, although more expensive to establish, showed very high returns with a Cost C of ₹5,57,265 per hectare and gross returns of ₹10,96,089 per hectare, giving a B:C ratio of 1.97. These results indicate that seasonal crops such as banana, elephant foot yam and tapioca contribute significantly to farm profitability. The cost of producing milk was estimated as ₹53 per litre when the value of family labour was imputed, whereas the average procurement price received by farmers from cooperatives was ₹42 per litre. This showed that dairy farming results in negative net returns when the imputed value of family labour is considered. Feed cost constituted the major share of total dairy expenditure. Despite these challenges, dairy remained important because it supplied regular income and allows them to remain active throughout the year. The optimisation analysis using a linear programming model was carried out to identify the most profitable combination of crop and livestock enterprises under the existing resource constraints. The optimum plans were generated by progressively increasing the number of milch animals while keeping the cultivated area constant. When the herd size increased from one to two cows (Optimum I), total farm income rose from ₹2,45,302 to ₹3,96,247, reflecting a 62 per cent improvement. Increasing the herd size from two to three cows (Optimum II) further enhanced income to ₹6,27,308. The highest income of ₹7,87,549 was obtained under Optimum III, when the herd size was expanded from three to four cows, compared to ₹6,35,000 in the corresponding existing situation. However, the increase in income was accompanied by a proportional rise in both labour and non-labour costs. Labour cost increased from ₹80,785 in the existing system to ₹1,43,674, ₹1,95,584 and ₹2,62,307 under Optimum I, II, and III, respectively. Similarly, non-labour cost rose from ₹1,03,515 to ₹1,95,257, ₹204345, and ₹4,10,958 across the respective plans. As a result, the pattern of net returns did not follow the same upward trend. Net returns declined slightly from ₹61,002 in the existing plan to ₹57,316 in Optimum I, owing to the sharp rise in feed and input costs. Profitability then improved markedly in Optimum II (₹1,40,813) when the herd size increased to three cows, before showing a mild decline in Optimum III (₹1,14,284). This suggests diminishing marginal returns beyond a certain herd size. Income risk associated with different herd sizes was analysed using the MOTAD model. The first plan (1-2 cows) recorded the lowest total deviation (₹14.88 lakh) and average deviation (₹40,216), indicating low risk. The second plan (2-3 cows) showed moderate risk with a total deviation of ₹41.67 lakh and an average deviation of ₹57,882. The third plan (3-4 cows) showed the highest risk with a total deviation of ₹74.80 lakh and an average deviation of ₹82,200. However, it was observed that the income per unit of risk was highest for the 2-3 cow range (10.84), showing that this range offers the best balance between income and stability. Herd sizes beyond three cows introduced disproportionately high risk. Thus, it can be concluded that for the small holder farmers practising mixed farming, optimum herd size is three. The Livelihood Security Index (LSI), constructed from 73 indicators, showed an overall score of 0.62, indicating a moderate level of livelihood security. Among the four categories, social security was the highest (0.68), supported by strong performance in education (0.85), health (0.70), institutional access (0.61) and market access (0.67). Economic security ranked next with a score of 0.65, followed by food security with a score of 0.53, limited mainly by low cattle-feed availability (0.45). Ecological security was the lowest (0.47) due to poor soil and water conservation practices (0.44) and limited climate-change response (0.50). From the results of the present study, following policy formulations can be considered. Since the actual cost of producing milk is ₹53 per litre, the procurement price offered by cooperatives needs upward revision to prevent negative net returns for smallholder farmers. As feed constitutes the major share of milk production cost, supplying more quantity of cattle feed at subsidised rates through dairy cooperatives can be considered. Effective integration of crop and cattle enterprises can be promoted by recycling crop residues as feed and applying cattle manure in fields. Farmers may be encouraged to maintain an optimum herd size of three crossbred cows, which balances milk output with land, labour and feed resources. Training in record-keeping, farm planning and budgeting can help improve economic efficiency. According to the study, for smallholders, dairy farming becomes profitable only when family labour is used without hiring. Finally, value-added dairy processing in cooperatives may be improved and the additional profits may be shared with farmers. Given that ecological security scored the lowest in the Livelihood Security Index, targeted interventions such as soil and water conservation measures, climate adaptation support and the promotion of sustainable fodder cultivation are crucial for improving long-term resilience. Together, these measures can enhance livelihood stability, reduce production risks, and strengthen the overall livelihood security of smallholder mixed farming households in South Kerala.Item Moisture stress mitigation in gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus L.) using growth regulators(Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2026) Sreya, KThe investigation entitled ‘Moisture stress mitigation in gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus L.) using growth regulators’ was conducted during 2024–2025 at the Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, to evaluate the impact of moisture stress and growth regulators on growth, flowering, yield, propagule production, physiological and biochemical responses, computed indices and postharvest quality in gladiolus. The experiment included the varieties Arka Amar, Arka Darshan and Arka Tilak under two moisture regimes and three growth regulator treatments; however, Arka Tilak was excluded after ten weeks due to corm rot. Overall, Arka Amar consistently outperformed Arka Darshan across most traits, and moisture stress at 75% FC reduced growth and quality, while melatonin effectively mitigated these reductions. Vegetative performance was highest in Arka Amar, with the maximum plant height of 114.63 cm recorded under 100% FC with melatonin, while Arka Darshan under stress without regulator registered the lowest height of 65.24 cm. Melatonin significantly increased shoot and root biomass, with the highest fresh and dry shoot weights (66.57 g and 43.69 g) and root weights (3.87 g fresh and 1.80 g dry) in Arka Amar under 100% FC, whereas the lowest values were recorded in Arka Darshan under stress without regulator. Flowering was advanced by melatonin and delayed by stress, with the earliest spike emergence and floret opening in Arka Amar × 100% FC × melatonin (85.37 and 96.17 days), while the maximum delay occurred in Arka Darshan × 75% FC × control (114.87 and 128.17 days). Spike quality traits were also superior in Arka Amar, with the longest spike length (97.05 cm), longest rachis (52.57 cm) and highest floret diameter (108.80 mm) under 100% FC with melatonin, whereas the poorest values were recorded in Arka Darshan under stress without regulator. Yield and propagule production showed similar trends. The highest spike weight (43.83 g) was obtained in Arka Amar under stress with melatonin and it was on par with 100% FC plus melatonin at 43.42 g, while Arka Darshan under stress control produced the 139 minimum at 22.85 g. Corm attributes were superior in Arka Amar and in melatonin-treated plants, with the largest corm diameter (4.77 cm) and maximum corm yield per plant (71.52 g) under Arka Amar × 100% FC × melatonin, whereas the lowest values were recorded in Arka Darshan × 75% FC × control. Melatonin also enhanced corm and cormel weights and sustained higher yields even under moisture stress. Postharvest quality followed the same pattern, with Arka Amar × 100% FC × melatonin achieving the longest vase life (10.50 days), highest water uptake (22.47 mL) and lowest physiological loss in weight (8.42 g). The poorest postharvest values were recorded in Arka Darshan × stress × control. Even under 75% FC, Arka Amar treated with melatonin produced flower quality comparable to well-watered plants. Physiological and biochemical analyses confirmed that melatonin improved photosynthetic activity, stomatal conductance, chlorophyll content and antioxidant enzyme activity while reducing electrolyte leakage. The best physiological performance occurred in Arka Amar × 100% FC × melatonin, which exhibited the highest photosynthesis, conductance and chlorophyll content, while the poorest functional status was seen in Arka Darshan × 75% FC × control. Stress-related biochemical markers such as proline, SOD, catalase and peroxidase increased under drought, with the strongest protective responses recorded in Arka Amar × stress × melatonin. Computed indices including leaf area index, water use efficiency and relative water content were also highest under melatonin, notably with a relative water content of 85 % in Arka Amar × 100% FC × melatonin, while the lowest value of 59.06 % occurred in Arka Darshan × stress × control. The study demonstrated that moisture stress adversely affects gladiolus growth, yield and quality. However, 100 μM melatonin and 0.3 mM brassinolide effectively alleviate these effects, with melatonin being superior. Arka Amar emerged as the most resilient and productive gladiolus variety under both optimal and water-limited conditions.Item Food security of household in Lakshadweep under the influence of climate change scenarios: an indicator based analysis(Department of Agriculture Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2026) Beebi Suhana,C NFood security, a basis of human development and well-being, is achieved when all people have continuous physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food. According to the FAO, food security consists of four dimensions: availability, accessibility, stability, and utilisation. In line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 2 (Zero Hunger), food security is increasingly jeopardised by the impacts of climate change, which not only diminishes the availability and stability of food supplies but also constrains access and utilisation by reducing income-generating opportunities, degrading natural resource bases, and driving up food prices, thereby exacerbating household vulnerability to hunger and malnutrition. Lakshadweep faces various climate challenges, including rising sea/atmospheric temperatures, sea-level rise, and extreme weather events. Despite these growing vulnerabilities, limited research has explored the nexus between climate change and household food security in Lakshadweep. Given the islands’ dependence on imported food, limited arable land, and high exposure to extreme weather, a critical research gap persists in understanding how climate-induced changes influence household food security. Addressing this gap is vital for formulating efficient and effective policies to enhance food security and also to reduce the negative impacts of climate change in this ecologically fragile island ecosystem. Hence, this study aims to: (i) quantify the food security status of households in Lakshadweep; (ii) determine the factors contributing to the food security of households in Lakshadweep; and (iii) develop a framework to assess the effects of climate change on the food security of Lakshadweep. A purposive sampling method was adopted for this study. Among the ten inhabited islands of Lakshadweep, two islands, Agatti (fishing-based) and Minicoy (tourism- based), were purposively selected. From Agatti’s 1,328 fishing households, a sample of 93 was determined at a 10% margin of error, while from Minicoy’s 2,710 tourism- based households, 96 were selected wereusing the same criteria. The final sample size was rounded to 200 households, comprising 100 from each island. Data were collected using KoboToolbox (Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing tool), which minimised sampling errors and enhanced efficiency by reducing data entry time. The data collected from 10 March 2025 to 20 April 2025. This research examined household food security through the human development and capability approach developed by Jean Drèze and Amartya Sen, which integrates entitlement and capability perspectives to understand hunger and well-being. The study employed a composite Food Security Index (FSI) that integrated 12 indicators across four dimensions to quantify household food security in the study area. To derive an objective weighting scheme for indicators in FSI calculation, principal component analysis (PCA) was performed. The FSI results showed substantial inter- island variation, with Agatti recording a lower FSI of 0.269 and Minicoy a higher FSI of 0.613, indicating relatively greater household food security in Minicoy. Furthermore, the FSI values were classified into four quartiles to assess household food security levels: the first quartile (0–0.250) denoted low food security; the second (0.251– 0.500) indicated medium food security; the third (0.501–0.750) represented high food security; and the fourth (0.751–1.0) corresponded to very high food security. The analysis revealed that 90% of households in Agatti fell within the low to medium food security range, whereas only 19% of households in Minicoy were classified in this category. In contrast, 81% of Minicoy households are in the high and very high food security categories, compared to just 10% in Agatti. These results indicate that food insecurity is far more severe in Agatti, where limited livelihood diversity and dependence on seasonal fishing constrain household income and purchasing power. Minicoy’s economy, supported by tourism and related small-scale enterprises, provides additional income and greater financial stability, enabling households to enhance household food security. An ordered probit regression was used to identify the factors influencing food security in Lakshadweep. In Agatti, the education level of the household head and land ownership significantly enhance food security, while the age of women responsible for cooking, as well as food sourcing difficulties caused by climate change, reduce it. Social assistance and the presence of non-communicable diseases also exert moderate effects. Whereas, Minicoy’s food security is positively influenced by the gender of the household head, women’s education, and housing quality. However, reduced access to traditional food and deterioration in food quality due to climate change negatively affect household food security. The DPSIR (Drivers–Pressures–State–Impact–Response) framework of the European Environment Agency served as the basis for developing a framework linking climate change and food security in Lakshadweep. Within the DPSIR framework, drivers such as urbanisation, industrialisation, cutting trees, etc., lead to pressures including rising temperatures, sea-level rise, changing rainfall pattern, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion, etc. These pressures alter the state of the four dimensions of food security. The resulting impacts are reduced agricultural and fish production, higher food prices, declining nutritional quality, disrupted supply chains, etc. In response, adaptive strategies such as renewable energy adoption, seawall construction, rainwater harvesting, livelihood diversification, and improved food storage systems are essential to strengthen resilience and ensure sustainable food security under changing climatic conditions. The policy recommendations based on this study emphasise the need for integrated strategies to enhance food security and climate resilience in island ecosystem. Enhancing food security and household resilience requires diversifying livelihoods to reduce dependence on fishing and promote alternative income sources. Improving food supply chains, expanding health insurance coverage, establishing processing units, and enhancing storage and cold chain facilities are crucial to ensuring food availability, stability, and safety. In addition, broader adaptation measures, such as integrating health and nutrition awareness, building climate- resilient infrastructure, such as seawalls, and installing seawater desalination plants, can mitigate the impacts of rising sea levels and freshwater scarcity. Furthermore, developing early warning and disaster preparedness systems is vital to protect lives and livelihoods from extreme weather events.Item Agroecology performance evaluation of farms in Kerala and Meghalaya(Department of Agricultural Extension Education, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2026) Dimrimchi, M SangmaThe study entitled “Agroecology performance evaluation of farms in Kerala and Meghalaya” was undertaken to assess the performance of agroecological farming systems in selected regions of the two states. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the agroecology performance of farms in Kerala and Meghalaya; to analyse the elements of agroecology and various management practices followed by the farmers and to delineate the constraints faced by farmers in adopting agroecological farming systems. The study was conducted in Wayanad district of Kerala and South West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya, both characterized by high climatic vulnerability and a significant presence of diverse farming systems. A multistage sampling method was employed for the selection of study areas and respondents to ensure representativeness and reduce sampling bias. A total of 80 farmers were selected for the study, with 40 farmers each from Kerala and Meghalaya. Primary data collection was collected through Kobotoolbox, a digital platform, using a pre- tested semi-structured interview schedule by conducting personal interview with the respondents. The assessment of extreme climatic events in Sultanbathery and Panamaram blocks of Wayanad highlights their high exposure to recurrent landslides and intense rainfall, placing them in the high climate impact category with impact scores of 2.80 and 3.25, respectively. In contrast, Selsella in Meghalaya faces frequent floods and hailstorms, categorized as medium impact with a score of 2.50. These findings underscore the need for localized adaptation measures such as soil and water conservation, slope stabilization in Kerala, and flood management and hail protection in Meghalaya, alongside farmer training and integrated climate adaptation planning. Using the ten dimensions of agroecology defined by TAPE such as Diversity, Synergy, Efficiency, Recycling, Resilience, Knowledge Sharing, Human and Social Values, Nutrition Culture, Circular Economy, and Responsible Governance, content analysis was conducted to deeply understand farming practices. This approach helped categorize and interpret farmers adoption patterns, strengths, and gaps across these key agroecological elements. The analysis identified fifty agroecological practice codes across ten dimensions used to categorize farmers practices. In Kerala, most responses focused on Diversity, Synergy and Efficiency, emphasizing diversification and resource optimization, while Governance and Circular Economy received less attention. In Meghalaya, Diversity, Recycling, and Human and Social Values were dominant, reflecting community-based and traditional practices, although Governance and Circular Economy were also limited. Overall, farmers prioritize on-farm ecological practices more than institutional and governance-related dimensions. Based on the identified codes and practices, bipartite network analysis revealed distinct adoption patterns across the two states. Kerala farmers are central adopters of agroecological practices like crop diversification, beekeeping, manure application, water conservation, agroforestry, input exchange, and mixed cropping, relying mainly on family labour and neighbour cooperation for knowledge sharing. In Meghalaya, a more centralized network shows key farmers adopting biogas slurry use, water recycling, group practice sharing, family labour, seasonal food traditions, seed saving, climate adaptation, land optimization and mixed cropping, reflecting strong community engagement and traditional practices. An Agroecology Adoption Index (AAI) was developed from content analysis to measure the intensity and diversity of agroecological practices across the three blocks. The index showed Selsella with the highest adoption (68.00%), followed by Sultanbathery (64.10%) and Panamaram (58.00%). Kerala’s blocks emphasized efficiency and social cohesion, while Meghalaya demonstrated more holistic engagement with agroecology. Key constraints were limited agroecology-supportive policies and subsidies favoring synthetic inputs in Kerala, and climate variability and governance issues in Meghalaya. Correlation analysis indicated significant similarity between Sultanbathery and Panamaram, with Meghalaya exhibiting distinct regional challenges. These results highlight the urgent need for targeted policies, climate resilience measures, and stronger institutional support. In conclusion, the study highlights that both Kerala and Meghalaya are progressing towards agroecological sustainability through distinct pathways. Policies promoting region-specific strategies to strengthen agroecological transitions, local innovation networks and climate-resilient agricultural practices should be given importance. Financial assistance through low-interest loans, transition grants, and incentives for eco-friendly technologies could be streamlined to ease farmers shift toward sustainable practices. Addressing these challenges will promote resilient, equitable farming systems aligned with agroecology’s core principles.Item Agroecology performance evaluation of farms in Kerala and Meghalaya(Department of Agricultural Extension Education, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2026) Dimrimchi, M Sangma; Archana, R SathyanThe study entitled “Agroecology performance evaluation of farms in Kerala and Meghalaya” was undertaken to assess the performance of agroecological farming systems in selected regions of the two states. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the agroecology performance of farms in Kerala and Meghalaya; to analyse the elements of agroecology and various management practices followed by the farmers and to delineate the constraints faced by farmers in adopting agroecological farming systems. The study was conducted in Wayanad district of Kerala and South West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya, both characterized by high climatic vulnerability and a significant presence of diverse farming systems. A multistage sampling method was employed for the selection of study areas and respondents to ensure representativeness and reduce sampling bias. A total of 80 farmers were selected for the study, with 40 farmers each from Kerala and Meghalaya. Primary data collection was collected through Kobotoolbox, a digital platform, using a pre- tested semi-structured interview schedule by conducting personal interview with the respondents. The assessment of extreme climatic events in Sultanbathery and Panamaram blocks of Wayanad highlights their high exposure to recurrent landslides and intense rainfall, placing them in the high climate impact category with impact scores of 2.80 and 3.25, respectively. In contrast, Selsella in Meghalaya faces frequent floods and hailstorms, categorized as medium impact with a score of 2.50. These findings underscore the need for localized adaptation measures such as soil and water conservation, slope stabilization in Kerala, and flood management and hail protection in Meghalaya, alongside farmer training and integrated climate adaptation planning. Using the ten dimensions of agroecology defined by TAPE such as Diversity, Synergy, Efficiency, Recycling, Resilience, Knowledge Sharing, Human and Social Values, Nutrition Culture, Circular Economy, and Responsible Governance, content analysis was conducted to deeply understand farming practices. This approach helped categorize and interpret farmers adoption patterns, strengths, and gaps across these key agroecological elements. The analysis identified fifty agroecological practice codes across ten dimensions used to categorize farmers practices. In Kerala, most responses focused on Diversity, Synergy and Efficiency, emphasizing diversification and resource optimization, while Governance and Circular Economy received less attention. In Meghalaya, Diversity, Recycling, and Human and Social Values were dominant, reflecting community-based and traditional practices, although Governance and Circular Economy were also limited. Overall, farmers prioritize on-farm ecological practices more than institutional and governance-related dimensions. Based on the identified codes and practices, bipartite network analysis revealed distinct adoption patterns across the two states. Kerala farmers are central adopters of agroecological practices like crop diversification, beekeeping, manure application, water conservation, agroforestry, input exchange, and mixed cropping, relying mainly on family labour and neighbour cooperation for knowledge sharing. In Meghalaya, a more centralized network shows key farmers adopting biogas slurry use, water recycling, group practice sharing, family labour, seasonal food traditions, seed saving, climate adaptation, land optimization and mixed cropping, reflecting strong community engagement and traditional practices. An Agroecology Adoption Index (AAI) was developed from content analysis to measure the intensity and diversity of agroecological practices across the three blocks. The index showed Selsella with the highest adoption (68.00%), followed by Sultanbathery (64.10%) and Panamaram (58.00%). Kerala’s blocks emphasized efficiency and social cohesion, while Meghalaya demonstrated more holistic engagement with agroecology. Key constraints were limited agroecology-supportive policies and subsidies favoring synthetic inputs in Kerala, and climate variability and governance issues in Meghalaya. Correlation analysis indicated significant similarity between Sultanbathery and Panamaram, with Meghalaya exhibiting distinct regional challenges. These results highlight the urgent need for targeted policies, climate resilience measures, and stronger institutional support. In conclusion, the study highlights that both Kerala and Meghalaya are progressing towards agroecological sustainability through distinct pathways. Policies promoting region-specific strategies to strengthen agroecological transitions, local innovation networks and climate-resilient agricultural practices should be given importance. Financial assistance through low-interest loans, transition grants, and incentives for eco-friendly technologies could be streamlined to ease farmers shift toward sustainable practices. Addressing these challenges will promote resilient, equitable farming systems aligned with agroecology’s core principles.