1. KAUTIR (Kerala Agricultural University Theses Information and Retrieval)
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Item Identification of pod borers and pod bugs of cowpea using deep learning techniques(Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2025-01-25) Asni Ansar; Santhoshkumar, TThe study on “Identification of pod borers and pod bugs of cowpea using deep learning techniques” was conducted during 2022-2024. The objectives of the study were to create a database containing images of pod borers and pod bugs along with symptoms of infestation; selection of the best deep-learning model for accurate pest identification; and documentation of the crop-pest-weather relationship. High-quality images of pod borers and pod bugs at various life stages, including eggs, nymphs (pod bugs), pupae (pod borers) and adults were systematically collected from cowpea fields in the Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts of Kerala. All images were preprocessed using the Roboflow platform to ensure consistency and improve model performance. The preprocessing steps involved cropping, resizing, auto-orientation, and contrast adjustment to standardize the images. For the identification of pod borers and pod bugs, separate classes were created based on species. The pod borer model consisted of 10 classes, while the pod bugs model had 4 classes, corresponding to different species and life stages. A total of 20 models (M1–M20) were developed using the You Only Look Once (YOLO) architecture on Google Colab to identify pod bugs, experimenting with different hyperparameters to determine the optimal model. This optimization process involved variation in the number of epochs (20 to 300), image sizes (640×640 pixels and 512×512 pixels) and training-to-testing ratios (80:20 and 75:25). The YOLO-based model (M14) which was trained with 200 epochs, an image size of 512×512 pixels and a training-to-testing ratio of 80:20, achieved an impressive precision of 99.5 per cent in identifying different species of pod bugs. A class-wise performance evaluation was conducted across all models, revealing that the M14 model achieved a precision score of over 90 per cent for each class. The optimized hyperparameters were subsequently applied to additional models developed for pod borer identification and life stage differentiation. The results were impressive, with nearly all classes achieving precision rates exceeding 85 per cent in identifying pod borers. This highlights the effectiveness of the models in accurately identifying both pod borers and pod bugs of cowpea, along with their respective life stages. 94 The seasonal incidence of pest populations was further analyzed to understand their correlations with weather parameters. The pod borer, Maruca vitrata showed a peak population density of 2.65 larvae per five plants during late April (16th SMW) under warmer temperatures (25–30°C). The population of M. vitrata exhibited a significant positive correlation with minimum temperature (r = 0.630) and a negative correlation with evening relative humidity (RH II, r = -0.396). The seasonal data revealed a peak population density of Riptortus pedestris at 7.54 bugs per five plants during late April (16th SMW). This peak correlated positively with maximum temperature (r = 0.637) and minimum temperature (r = 0.559), and negatively with evening RH (r = -0.480). Aphid (Aphis craccivora) populations peaked during the 15th, 22nd and 28th–31st SMWs, reaching up to 75 aphids per leaf. Aphid populations showed a positive correlation with evening RH (r = 0.520) and a non-significant negative correlation with maximum temperature (r = -0.354) and rainfall (r = -0.400). The study successfully developed and optimized YOLO-based models for the precise identification of pod borers and pod bugs, achieving high precision rates of over 85 per cent for pod borers and 90 per cent for pod bugs across different species and life stages. These results establish a robust framework for scalable pest monitoring, with potential applications in mobile or web-based tools for real-time pest identification. Future research could further enrich the database with additional pest species and integrate predictive analytics for proactive pest management. The seasonal incidence analysis provided valuable insights into the relationships between pest populations and weather parameters. Both pod borers (M. vitrata) and pod bugs (R. pedestris) reached peak population densities during warmer periods (16th SMW), demonstrating a significant correlation with temperature and relative humidity. Aphid (A. craccivora) populations also exhibited multiple peaks, showing a positive correlation with evening RH. These findings underscore the importance of considering abiotic factors in developing effective pest monitoring and control strategies for sustainable cowpea cultivation.Item Pedigree selection for spotted pod borer resistance in the segregating generation of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.)(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2022-09-19) Minnu Thomas.; Jiji JosephCowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] is an important pulse crop grown across the world mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. Being a drought-tolerant and warm-weather crop, it is a promising food and forage species in a typical tropical lowland climate. Low productivity in cowpea is mainly attributed by the severe attack of pest complexes, diseases, low fertile soils and lack of inputs. Among the various obstructions responsible for diminishing the production of cowpea, the predominant factor is the damage caused by insect pests. Among the various insect pest causing economic losses, the spotted pod borer, Maruca vitrata (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) acts as the most damaging one. Hence, the present investigation was conducted in the Department of Plant breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, KAU, Vellanikkara with the objective of Pedigree selection from early segregating generations of cowpea hybrids for resistance against spotted pod borer. Ambavane (2018) identified that ten superior F2 lines from the cross Vellayani Jyothika × EC 98668 were resistant to spotted pod borer. The present study involved the reconstitution of the above cross and the pedigree analysis of resultant segregating material. Through hybridisation between Vellayani Jyothika and EC 98668, ten hybrid plants were produced. These hybrids were evaluated on morphological basis for resistance. Seeds from F1 hybrid were then sown to raise the F2 population. A population size of 500 plants was maintained in the F2 population and individual plant observations were taken for analysing their quantitative characters. The F2 population showed high variability for the characters like days to 50 per cent flowering, plant height, no. of pods per plant, pod length and grain yield per plant. However, low variability was observed in characters like no. of primary branches per plant, no. of seeds per pod and 100 seed weight. Selection was not carried out in the F2 population and the seeds were forwarded to raise the next generation. The genetic variability studies of the F2 population revealed that high PCV, GCV, heritability and GAM was recorded for characters like pod length, grain yield per plant and 100 seed weight. In F3 population, morphological and biochemical observations was carried out with the objective to select superior lines showing resistance to pod borer. The F3 population showed reduced variability for all quantitative characters except No. of seeds per pod compared to F2 population. The genetic variability studies of the F3 population also showed a similar trend like F2 population and showed high PCV, GCV, heritability and GAM for characters like pod length, grain yield per plant and 100 seed weight. Analysis of morphological basis of resistance to pod borer revealed a negative correlation of pod wall thickness, trichome density on pod and bud with pod damage. With respect to the biochemical basis of resistance to pod borer, total sugar content and total protein content showed significant positive correlation with pod damage. However, total phenol content and polyphenol oxidase activity was found to be negatively correlated with pod damage and the correlation was non-significant. Based on the correlation study and taking into account of the work of earlier studies, it is evident that the biophysical characters like pod wall thickness, pod trichome density, bud trichome density and biochemical characters like total sugar content, total protein content, total phenol content and polyphenol oxidase activity are highly associated with spoted pod borer resistance. Based on these results, a selection criteria was fixed. Thirty superior plants from F3 population were selected. These plants could be further evaluated to identify high yielding resistant lines.Item Development of dual purpose fodder Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp] through mutagenesis(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2021-12-21) Arya S Nair; Gayathri, G .The present study entitled “Development of dual purpose fodder cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp] through mutagenesis” was conducted in the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2019-2021. The study was conducted to induce mutation in fodder cowpea, variety Aiswarya with Ethyl Methane Sulphonate and to select superior dual purpose genotypes for seed and fodder from the mutants. The study was carried out in three experiments. In the first experiment, seeds of fodder cowpea variety Aiswarya were treated with five different doses of EMS. Observations were recorded on seed germination per cent and seedling survival per cent. Germination percentage and seedling survival percentage reduced with an increase in the concentration of the mutagen. Based on the seedling survival percentage, LD50 value were determined. Effective doses were fixed as 0.35%, 0.39%, 0.43%, 0.47% and 0.51% according to the LD50 value. In experiment II, seeds were treated with the effective doses of EMS and M1 plants were evaluated. Observations were recorded on seedling emergence (%), seedling survival at branching stage (%), and plant survival up to maturity (%) and these characters varied significantly among the treatments. Presence of chimera and chlorophyll mutants was also observed. Presence of chlorophyll mutants were noted in the population of all mutagenised treatments. Seeds from M1 generation constituted M2 population. M2 generation was observed for various quantitative characters including number of primary branches per plant, number of leaves per plant, days to first flowering, days to 50% flowering, green fodder yield per plant, dry matter yield per plant, leaf stem ratio, leaf dry weight per plant, stem dry weight per plant, leaf area index, plant height, seed yield per plant and days to maturity and qualitative characters like early plant vigour, plant growth habit, leaf texture, leaf colour, flower colour, seed colour and presence of chlorophyll mutants. Significant variations were found in all quantitative characters except plant height and leaf stem ratio. Among these, number of primary branches per plant, number of leaves per plant, green fodder yield per plant, dry matter yield per plant, leaf dry weight per plant, stem dry weight per plant and leaf area index were higher in 0.43% EMS treatment. Seed yield was found higher in control, which was on par with 0.51% EMS and followed by 0.43% EMS treatment. In qualitative characters, seed colour and plant growth habit showed remarkable variation, whereas early plant vigour, leaf texture and leaf colour exhibited slight variations. Flower colour did not show any variations. Comparing with M1, frequency of chlorophyll mutants in M2 was lesser. For fodder purpose, 0.43% EMS treatment expressed higher fodder yield. In case of seed yield, 0.51% was recorded with higher seed yield, followed by 0.43% among the mutants. It was concluded from the present investigation that, for fodder cowpea variety Aiswarya, which was treated with different concentration of EMS and 0.43% EMS treatment was found effective to obtain superior genotypes for seed and fodder yield from mutants.Item Endophytic bacteria for plant growth promotion and management of web blight of cowpea(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2021-11-29) Siva, M.; Sreeja, S JThe study entitled “Endophytic bacteria for plant growth promotion and management of web blight of cowpea” was conducted in Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2019-2021 with the objective to evaluate endophytic bacteria inplant growth promotion and management of web blight of cowpea. Endophytic bacteria were isolated from healthy root, stem and leaves of fodder cowpea var. Aiswarya (22 isolates) and bush cowpea var. Bhagyalakshmi (16 isolates) from Instructional farm, COA Vellayani and farmer’s field at Naruvamoodu respectively. The isolates were purified and maintained for further studies. The pathogen Rhizoctonia solani causing web blight of cowpea was isolated from infected plant samples and pathogenicity tests were carried out. The isolates of endophytic bacteria were screened against R.solani by testing their antagonistic properties adopting dual culture technique. The results revealed that isolate CBRE5 (9.33 mm) showed maximum zone of inhibition against R. solani which was on par with CBRE1 (8.83 mm) followed by CBSE5 (8.33 mm). The mycelial growth inhibition of R. solani was recorded maximum (48.52 %) by the isolate CBRE5 followed by CBRE1 (42.22 %) which was on par with CBSE5 (41.85 %). The culture filtrate obtained from the isolates CFLE3 and CBRE5 recorded maximum zone of inhibition against R. solani. Based on the results of direct and indirect antagonism of endophytic bacteria, 20 isolates were selected as promising ones for biopriming of cowpea seeds. Surface sterilized cowpea seeds were bio-primed with selected bacterial endophytes at 108 cfu/ ml using roll towel assay. The cowpea seedlings treated with isolate CFLE3 recorded the maximum seedling vigour index – I and II (4087.33 and 7.66 respectively) which was on par with CBRE5 (3598.00 and 6.73 respectively) followed by CBSE5 (3452.33 and 6.70 respectively). Based on the results of roll towel assay the isolates CFLE3, CBRE5 and CBSE5 were selected as the best three bacterial endophytes for further studies. The promising endophytic bacterial isolates were tentatively identified as Bacillus through morphological, cultural and biochemical characters. The identities of the species of these isolates were further confirmed through 16S rRNA analyses as Bacillus subtilis(CFLE3), B. amyloliquefaciens (CBRE5) and B. velezensis (CBSE5). The compatibility studiesamong the best three bacterial endophytes following disc diffusion method and cross streak plate assay indicated that the isolates were compatible among themselves. In pot culture experiment, seed biopriming for 4 h along with foliar application (20 and 40 DAS) of B. velezensis CBRE5recorded minimum percent disease index (PDI) (32.33) on 14 DAI which was on par with the treatment with B. amyloliquefaciens CBSE5 (PDI- 39.33) followed by treatment combination with B. amyloliquefaciens CBSE5 and B. velezensis CBRE5 (PDI – 41.33). In vivo evaluation of best three endophytic bacterial isolates and their combinations for plant growth promotion indicated that combined seed biopriming for 4 h along with foliar application of B. amyloliquefaciens CBSE5 and B. velezensis CBRE5 (20 and 40 DAS) recorded maximum values for all growth parameters viz. shoot length (47.40 cm), root length (40.93 cm), shoot fresh weight (139.16 g), root fresh weight (49.33 g), shoot dry weight (27.83 g), root dry weight (6.33 g), pod yield (236.66 g) and number of pods per plant (36). However, the plants treated with isolate B. amyloliquefaciens CBSE5 exhibited early flowering (33 DAS). The best three endophytic bacterial isolates were evaluated for their plant growth promoting traits such as production of indole acetic acid (IAA), ammonia, phosphate, siderophore and HCN. B. amyloliquefaciens CBSE5 recorded highest IAA (3.54 μg/ml) and siderophore (zone of colouration – 6 mm) production. Whereas, the isolate B. velezensis CBRE5 showed highest ammonia (177.29 μmol/ml) and phosphate (zone solubilization - 2mm) production. Thus, the present study indicated that seed biopriming for 4 h along with foliar application (20 and 40 DAS) of B. velezensis CBRE5 was most effective treatment for the management of web blight of cowpea whereas combined seed biopriming for 4 h along with foliar application (20 and 40 DAS) of B. amyloliquefaciens CBSE5 and B. velezensis CBRE5 was the best treatment in plant growth promotion in vivo which could be further validated under field conditions for ecofriendly and sustainable safe – to – eat crop production.Item Seed treatment in cowpea (vigna unguiculata L.) for seed quality enhancement using botanicals(Department of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, 2024-03-27) Kottagorla Venkata Satya Sai Krishna.; Roshni VijayanThe present investigation entitled “Seed treatment in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) for seed quality enhancement using botanicals” was carried out at the Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS) Pattambi, Kerala. The study aimed to assess the effect of seed hardening with organic leaf extracts on filed performance, seedling quality parameters and nutritional attributes of cowpea during the storage period. This study consists of three experiments (Experiment -1) Effect of seed hardening with organic leaf extracts on field performance of cowpea. It was evaluated by using randomized block design (RBD) with nine treatments including control (5% leaf extracts of Calotropis, Papaya, Pongamia, Castor, Moringa, Vitex, Neem, Tulsi and Control) and 3 replications. Seeds were soaked in 5% leaf extracts for four hours and then shade dried to their original moisture content. Crop raised as per POP recommendation of KAU (2016). Observations were recorded on growth and yield parameters during crop growth stages. The results revealed that the performance of seeds treated with organic leaf extracts was better compared to the control. A significant effect was observed in seeds treated with Pongamia leaf extract had given the highest values for plant height (145.07 cm), number of branches per plant (10.27), number of clusters per plant (7.53), number of pods per plant (12.13), seed yield per plot (353.62 g), dry matter production at harvest (56.95 g), and nodule count per plant (17.78). Seeds treated with Calotropis leaf extract had given the highest values for, pod length (17.18 cm) and pod weight (10.63g). Similarly, neem leaf extract had given the highest values for pod girth (2.2 cm) and 100 seed weight (12.88 g). (Experiment-2) The effect of seed treatment with organic leaf extracts on the seedling quality parameters of cowpea was evaluated in a completely randomized design with three replications. Seed treatment was done as in the previous experiment and then shade-dried the seeds for two days, bringing the moisture content to less than 8 %, and packed in a 700-gauge polythene bag kept for storage in ambient conditions. Observations were recorded on seedling quality parameters at the start of the storage, 45 DAS and 3 months after storage. It was observed that seeds treated with organic leaf extracts had better performance compared to control. A significant effect was observed in seeds treated with Pongamia leaf extract had given the highest values for emergence per cent (61.67 %), root length (10.33 cm), seedling dry weight (0.048 g), low electrical conductivity of seed leachate (0.467 dSm -1), emergence index (21.38) and seedling vigour index-II (3.03). Seeds treated with Calotropis leaf extract had given the highest values for germination per cent (63.67 %), low pulse beetle infestation (16.33 %), germination index (324), mean germination time (3.87 days), time taken for 50 % germination (3.34 days) and seedling vigour index-I (2259) by the end of the storage period. Seeds treated with Papaya leaf extract had given the highest values for shoot length (25.65 cm). Similarly, low seed microflora per cent (19.05%), was recorded in seeds treated with neem leaf extract by the end of the storage period. (Experiment-3) The effect of seed treatment with organic leaf extracts on the nutritional attributes of cowpea. Experiments 3 was carried out simultaneously with Experiment 2 by using the same seeds kept for storage in the Experiment 2. Observations were recorded on nutritional attributes which include crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, vitamin C, calcium content, iron content, ash content, carbohydrate content and phytic acid content at the start of storage, 45 DAS and 90 DAS . A significant effect was observed in seeds treated with Pongamia leaf extract, which had given the highest values for calcium content (48.03 mg/100 g), iron content (2.42 mg/100 g), ash content (4.07 %) and carbohydrate content (51.03 %) by the end of the storage period. Among all the treatments, seeds treated with Pongamia leaf extracts had given the better performance compared to control in field performance as well as improvement in seedling quality parameters and preserving the nutritional attributes of cowpea during the storage period.Item Seed treatment in cowpea (vigna unguiculata L.) for seed quality enhancement using botanicals(Department of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2024-03-27) Kottagorla Venkata Satya Sai Krishna.The present investigation entitled “Seed treatment in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) for seed quality enhancement using botanicals” was carried out at the Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS) Pattambi, Kerala. The study aimed to assess the effect of seed hardening with organic leaf extracts on filed performance, seedling quality parameters and nutritional attributes of cowpea during the storage period. This study consists of three experiments (Experiment -1) Effect of seed hardening with organic leaf extracts on field performance of cowpea. It was evaluated by using randomized block design (RBD) with nine treatments including control (5% leaf extracts of Calotropis, Papaya, Pongamia, Castor, Moringa, Vitex, Neem, Tulsi and Control) and 3 replications. Seeds were soaked in 5% leaf extracts for four hours and then shade dried to their original moisture content. Crop raised as per POP recommendation of KAU (2016). Observations were recorded on growth and yield parameters during crop growth stages. The results revealed that the performance of seeds treated with organic leaf extracts was better compared to the control. A significant effect was observed in seeds treated with Pongamia leaf extract had given the highest values for plant height (145.07 cm), number of branches per plant (10.27), number of clusters per plant (7.53), number of pods per plant (12.13), seed yield per plot (353.62 g), dry matter production at harvest (56.95 g), and nodule count per plant (17.78). Seeds treated with Calotropis leaf extract had given the highest values for, pod length (17.18 cm) and pod weight (10.63g). Similarly, neem leaf extract had given the highest values for pod girth (2.2 cm) and 100 seed weight (12.88 g). (Experiment-2) The effect of seed treatment with organic leaf extracts on the seedling quality parameters of cowpea was evaluated in a completely randomized design with three replications. Seed treatment was done as in the previous experiment and then shade-dried the seeds for two days, bringing the moisture content to less than 8 %, and packed in a 700-gauge polythene bag kept for storage in ambient conditions. Observations were recorded on seedling quality parameters at the start of the storage, 45 DAS and 3 months after storage. It was observed that seeds treated with organic leaf extracts had better performance compared to control. A significant effect was observed in seeds treated with Pongamia leaf extract had given the highest values for emergence per cent (61.67 %), root length (10.33 cm), seedling dry weight (0.048 g), low electrical conductivity of seed leachate (0.467 dSm -1), emergence index (21.38) and seedling vigour index-II (3.03). Seeds treated with Calotropis leaf extract had given the highest values for germination per cent (63.67 %), low pulse beetle infestation (16.33 %), germination index (324), mean germination time (3.87 days), time taken for 50 % germination (3.34 days) and seedling vigour index-I (2259) by the end of the storage period. Seeds treated with Papaya leaf extract had given the highest values for shoot length (25.65 cm). Similarly, low seed microflora per cent (19.05%), was recorded in seeds treated with neem leaf extract by the end of the storage period. (Experiment-3) The effect of seed treatment with organic leaf extracts on the nutritional attributes of cowpea. Experiments 3 was carried out simultaneously with Experiment 2 by using the same seeds kept for storage in the Experiment 2. Observations were recorded on nutritional attributes which include crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, vitamin C, calcium content, iron content, ash content, carbohydrate content and phytic acid content at the start of storage, 45 DAS and 90 DAS . A significant effect was observed in seeds treated with Pongamia leaf extract, which had given the highest values for calcium content (48.03 mg/100 g), iron content (2.42 mg/100 g), ash content (4.07 %) and carbohydrate content (51.03 %) by the end of the storage period. Among all the treatments, seeds treated with Pongamia leaf extracts had given the better performance compared to control in field performance as well as improvement in seedling quality parameters and preserving the nutritional attributes of cowpea during the storage period.Item Management of fusarium wilt of vegetable cowpea with Consortia of Endophytic Bacilli(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2024) Anuvinda, A R.; Sreeja, S JThe study entitled “Management of Fusarium wilt of vegetable cowpea with consortia of endophytic Bacilli” was conducted at Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2021-2023 with the objective to evaluate the consortia of endophytic Bacilli for the management of Fusarium wilt of vegetable cowpea. Twenty endophytic Bacillus isolates, sourced from prior studies conducted at the Department of Plant Pathology and the Department of Agricultural Microbiology, were used for the current study. The antagonistic potential of all endophytic Bacillus isolates against Fusarium oxysporum was evaluated through both dual culture plate assay and culture filtrate assay. Out of the 20 isolates, 14 exhibited antagonistic activity against the pathogen. The isolate WL1 stood out, displaying maximum inhibition zone of 7.00 mm against Fusarium oxysporum. Meanwhile, the isolate GR1 achieved the maximum mycelial growth inhibition (30.62%) against F. oxysporum. Culture filtrate of the isolates PCSE8, PCSE10, PNRE4, AR2, AR1, GR1, GR2 and CFLE3 also had inhibitory action against F. oxysporum, indicating antagonism by diffusible metabolites. The findings from direct and indirect antagonism indicated that isolates PNRE5, NAT001, WR2, WR1, VLY17, and PNSE5 did not exhibit antagonistic properties against the wilt pathogen in cowpea. The endophytic Bacillus isolates underwent assessment for various plant growth promoting (PGP) traits, including nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, potassium solubilization, IAA and gibberellic acid production, siderophore production, ACC deaminase activity, ammonia and HCN production, as well as the release of volatile organic compounds. Among the 20 isolates, ten demonstrated nitrogen-fixing capabilities, while 15 exhibited phosphorus solubilizing activity. None of the isolates displayed potassium solubilization, as evidenced by the absence of a clearance zone in Aleksandrov medium. All tested bacterial isolates produced IAA, ranging from 14.64 μg mL⁻¹ to 0.08 μg mL⁻¹. However, none of the isolates demonstrated gibberellic acid (GA) production. Regarding ACC deaminase activity, nine isolates were able to produce α ketobutyrate within the range of 1.35 to 8.303 α-KB μmol. With the exception of four isolates, all tested ones produced siderophore, with the maximum production recorded for CBRE5 at 68.92 μg/ml. Among the 20 isolates, 12 exhibited ammonia production within the range of 5.18 to 0.234 μmol/ml and 11 isolates produced HCN. All isolates tested positive for the production of volatile organic compounds, with PCSE10 demonstrating the maximum mycelial growth inhibition (46.93%) against Fusarium sp. due to the volatile compounds emitted. In the protray growth experiment, there was a significant improvement in all the growth parameters of the seedlings treated with endophytic Bacillus isolates PNRE4, NAT001, AR1, WR2, VLY17, WL1 and PNSE5. Seedling vigour index I values ranged from 3444.80 (AR1) to 1191.00 (GL3) while seedling vigour index II ranged from 92.32 (AR1) to 30.00 (GL3). The compatibility studies among the endophytic Bacillus isolates following disc diffusion method and spot on lawn method indicated that isolates PNRE5, PNRE4, NAT001, AR2, GR1, GR2, WR2, WR1, WL2, PNSE5, CBRE5, CBSE5 and CFLE3 were compatible among themselves. Based on the results of in vitro experiments, eight compatible antagonistic endophytic Bacillus isolates viz., PNRE4, AR2, GR1, GR2, WL2, CBRE5, CBSE5 and CFLE3 with superior plant growth promoting traits and seedling vigour index were pooled together to form Consortium I. All the 20 endophytic Bacillus isolates selected for the study were pooled together to form Consortium II. Seed biopriming for four hours along with soil application of Consortium 1 thrice (@ 20, 40 and 60 DAS) recorded only 33.33% wilt incidence while, the similar mode of application of Consortium II recorded 50 % disease incidence in vivo. The results of field evaluation revealed that seed biopriming for four hours along with soil application of Consortium 1 thrice (@ 20, 40 and 60 DAS) recorded 28% wilt incidence while, the similar mode of application of Consortium II recorded 32 % wilt incidence. No significant difference between Consortium I and II was observed on days taken for flowering, number of pods/plants, pod yield/plant, shoot fresh and dry weight except root fresh and dry weight. The present study emphasizes the importance of assessing the compatibility of strains while formulating a microbial consortium. Therefore, it can be inferred that inoculating cowpea plants with a consortium of compatible antagonistic endophytic Bacillus isolates possessing superior plant growth-promoting traits and seedling vigor index substantially mitigated the occurrence of Fusarium wilt in cowpea. Additionally, it facilitated the improved establishment of plants by enhancing overall plant growthItem Rationalisation of phosphorus and potassium nutrition in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp) in the southern laterites(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani xvi,170p., 2023-12-16) Sruthy, H.; Shalini Pillai, P: The study entitled “Rationalisation of phosphorus and potassium nutrition in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) in the Southern Laterites” was undertaken at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during 2021-2023. The key objectives were to assess the productivity and quality of cowpea in response to varied doses of phosphorus and potassium supplemented with foliar nutrition, and to compute the economics. The field experiment was carried out at the Integrated Farming System Research Station, Karamana, from December 2022 to February 2023. It was laid out in randomised block design with (2 x 3 x 2) + 1 treatments, replicated thrice. The treatments comprised combinations of two levels of P (p1-100 % RDP, p2-50 % RDP), three levels of K (k1 - 100 % RDK, k2 - 150 % RDK, k3 - 200 % RDK) and foliar application at 20 DAS and 40 DAS (f1 - nano DAP @ 0.4%, f2 - PSAP @ 0.4 %), compared against a control (KAU POP). The variety used for the study was PGCP-6 and the fertilizer recommendation followed was 20:30:10 kg NPK ha-1 . All other cultural operations were carried out as per the KAU POP. The treatment, p1 (100 % RDP) resulted in significantly taller plants at 30 DAS, 45 DAS and 60 DAS) with more number of primary branches (45 DAS and 60 DAS), the highest CGR, RGR and NAR at 15-30 DAS, more number of nodules and the highest total dry matter production (DMP). The treatment, p2 (50 % RDP) resulted in the highest CGR and NAR at 30-45 DAS, and RGR at 45-60 DAS. Among the levels of K, 200 per cent RDK (k3) recorded significantly taller plants (45 DAS and 60 DAS) with more number of primary branches (45 DAS), RGR, CGR and NAR (15-30 DAS) and total DMP (4917 kg ha-1 ). Foliar application of nano DAP (0.4 %) at 20 DAS and 40 DAS (f1) resulted in more number of primary branches, LAI and RGR at 60 DAS, and total DMP (4925 kg ha-1 ). Foliar application of PSAP (0.4 %) at 20 DAS and 40 DAS (f2) resulted in more number of nodules per plant, and CGR and NAR at 30-45 DAS. Among the P x K x F interactions, p1k1f1 (100 % RDP + 100 % RDK + nano DAP @ 0.4 %) resulted in higher total DMP, and was on par with p1k3f1. The treatment combination, p2k2f2 resulted in higher NAR and remained comparable with p2k1f1, p1k1f2 and p1k2f2, at 45-60 DAS. The treatment combination, p2k1f1 resulted in significantly higher LAI (2.94) at 60 DAS and CGR at 30- 45 DAS. The treatments were superior to control with respect to growth attributes and total DMP. The treatments, p2, k1 and f2 resulted in the highest number of pods per plant (23.42, 23.17, 22.57), seeds per pod (16.51, 15.81, 15.88), pod yield (1700 kg ha-1 , 1669 kg ha-1 , 1619 kg ha-1 ) and seed yield (1484 kg ha-1 , 1433 kg ha-1 , 1395 kg ha-1 ). However, the highest haulm yields (4451 kg ha-1 , 4235 kg ha-1 ) were observed with 100% RDP (p1) and 200% RDK (k3). Among the interaction effects, p2k1f2 resulted in the highest number of pods per plant (26.17), pod yield (1892 kg ha-1 ) and seed yield (1642 kg ha -1 ) and significantly higher number of seeds per pod (20.17), which was at par with p2k3f2. The treatments were superior to control with respect to yield attributes and yield, except haulm yield. While, p1 (100% RDP) recorded the highest uptake of N and P, and apparent recovery efficiency of P (AREp), the treatments, p2 (50% RDP) and k1 (100% RDK) resulted in the highest partial factor productivity (PFPp), agronomic efficiency (AEp) and physiological efficiency (PEp). While f1 (nano DAP @ 0.4% at 20 DAS and 40 DAS) resulted in the highest N uptake (247.35 kg ha-1 ), f2 (PSAP @ 0.4% at 20 DAS and 40 DAS) resulted in the highest chlorophyll content at 45 DAS (1.92 mg g-1 ) and P uptake (21.55 kg ha-1 ), AEp (24.75 kg kg-1 ) and AREp (53.12 %) of P. Among the P x K x F interactions, p1k3f1 (100 % RDP + 200 % RDK + nano DAP @ 0.4 % at 20 DAS and 40 DAS) resulted in the highest N uptake (265.11 kg ha-1 ) and p1k3f2 resulted in the highest P uptake (28.53 kg ha-1 ). The highest PFPp (98.93 kg kg-1 ) and AEp (44.84 kg kg-1 ) were recorded with p2k1f2. The treatments were superior to control with respect to NPK uptake, PFPp and AEp. The seed quality in terms of zinc content was observed to be superior with 50% RDP (p2) and f1 (nano DAP @ 0.4% at 20 DAS and 40 DAS). The seed crude protein content responded significantly to K and remained comparable among the three levels of K. The treatment, k3 resulted in the highest organic carbon content (1.17 %), available P (65.27 kg ha-1 ) and available K (236.74 kg ha-1 ). The treatment, f2 resulted in the highest soil available P (62.77 kg ha-1 ). Among the P x K x F interactions, the highest net gain in available N (205.10 kg ha-1 ), available P (7.67 kg ha-1 ) and available K (68.24 kg ha-1 ) were observed with the treatment combinations, p2k3f2, p1k3f2 and p1k3f1 respectively. The treatments were superior to control with respect to pH, organic carbon, and available NPK status of the post-harvest soil. Significantly higher net income and benefit cost ratio were recorded with p2 (₹62,879 ha-1 ,1.99), k1 (₹58,307 ha-1 , 1.92), f2 (₹54,256 ha-1 , 1.85) and p2k1f2 (₹76,120 ha-1 , 2.20). Considering the yield, economics and phosphorus use efficiency, application of full dose of N (20 kg ha-1 ) along with 50 per cent recommended dose of P (15 kg ha-1 ) + 100 per cent recommended dose of K (10 kg ha-1 ), supplemented with foliar application of potassium salt of active phosphorus (0.4%) at 20 DAS and 40 DAS (p2k1f2), could be adjudged as the best treatment for higher productivity and profitability of grain cowpea in the Southern Laterites of Kerala (AEU 8)Item Phosphorus management for grain cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) in summer rice fallows(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2023-04-11) Elizabeth Mathew; Sudha, BA study titled “Phosphorus management for grain cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) in summer rice fallows” was conducted at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during 2019-2022 with the objectives of identifying grain cowpea varieties suited for summer rice fallows and to study the influence of beneficial phosphorus inoculants in enhancing phosphorus availability for the crop. The field experiment was carried out at the Integrated Farming System Research Station (IFSRS), Karamana from March to June, 2021. The design of experiment was Factorial Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications. The two factors studied were grain cowpea varieties (v) and phosphorus management (p). The grain cowpea varieties were v1- Kanakamony, v2- PGCP-6 and v3- DC-15. The five levels of P management were p1- Recommended dose of phosphorus (RDP) as per the KAU POP (30 kg P2O5 ha-1), p2- 75% RDP + AMF, p3- 75% RDP + PSB, p4- 75% RDP + AMF + PSB and p5- 50% RDP + AMF + PSB. All the treatments were applied with FYM @ 20 t ha-1, lime @ 250 kg ha-1, N @ 20 kg ha-1, K2O @ 10 kg ha-1 as per KAU POP. Rhizobium was applied @ 100 g per kg of seed as seed treatment. AMF at 5 g per pit and PSB mixed with FYM (20 g PSB per kg of FYM) @ 10 g per pit were applied to the treatment plots at sowing. Crop growth characters such as plant height and number of effective nodules were higher in PGCP-6 and was comparable with DC-15. PGCP-6 also recorded significantly the highest number of branches per plant, root mass and root volume per plant at 30 and 45 DAS. At 60 DAS, all the root parameters of PGCP-6 were comparable with DC-15. Higher number of leaves per plant was recorded in DC-15. Growth characters such as plant height, number of branches, leaves and effective nodules, root depth, mass and volume per plant were higher in p4 and were comparable with p5 and p2. AMF root colonization was higher in p4 and comparable to p5. The LAI of PGCP-6 was higher and comparable to DC-15 at 45 and 60 DAS. However, at 30 DAS, PGCP-6 recorded significantly the highest LAI (1.13). Among different levels of P management, higher LAI was observed in p4 at 45 and 60 DAS. 123 The variety PGCP-6 recorded significantly the highest number of pods per plant (16.29) and average pod weight (2.43 g). However, average pod length, number of seeds per pod and pod yield per plant were higher in DC-15 and were comparable with PGCP 6. Grain yield per plant, grain yield and harvest index were higher in PGCP-6 (13.65 g, 1111 kg ha-1 and 0.269 respectively) and was comparable to DC-15 (13.43 g, 1097 kg ha-1 and 0.264 respectively). The variety PGCP-6 exhibited an yield increase of 1.3 and 21.4 per cent over the varieties DC-15 and Kanakamony. The treatment p4 produced higher number of pods per plant (15.72) and it was on par with p5 (15.76) and p2 (14.32). The average pod weight was higher in treatment p4 (2.61 g) and was comparable with p2 (2.36 g). Other yield attributes including pod yield per plant, grain yield per plant and grain yield were found higher in treatment p4 (19.72 g, 13.71 g and 1174 kg ha-1 respectively) and was on par with p5 (19.49 g, 13.39 g and 1164 kg ha-1 respectively). Treatment p5 recorded higher harvest index (0.285) and was comparable to p4 (0.277). The treatment p4 ensued an yield increase of 8.8, 31.03 and 31.8 per cent over p2, p1 and p3 respectively. 1 Among different levels of P application, p1 recorded significantly higher soil available P (65.02 kg ha-1) at vegetative stage. However, at flowering stage higher soil available P was recorded in p4 (64.38 kg ha-1) and it was on par with p5 (62.20 kg ha-1) and p2 (62.59 kg ha-1). The highest uptake of N (99.17 kg ha-1) and P (13.69 kg ha-1) were noticed with PGCP-6 while the highest K uptake (61.46 kg ha-1) was recorded by DC-15. Among different P levels, the treatment p5 resulted in higher N (100.16 kg ha ) and K (63.67 kg ha-1) uptake and was comparable with p4 and p2. Higher and comparable P uptake was recorded with p4 (14.90 kg ha-1) and p5 (14.63 kg ha-1). Among interactions, the treatment combination v2p4 recorded higher number of branches per plant at 45 DAS (6.21) and was comparable with v2p5 (6.17). Higher grain yield per plant (14.50 g) and grain yield (1254 kg ha-1) were recorded in v2p4 and was comparable to v2p5, v3p4 and v3p5. The variety PGCP-6 recorded higher net returns (₹ 30402 ha-1) and B:C ratio (1.423). Among P management, p1 recorded higher net returns (₹ 31347 ha-1) and B:C 124 ratio (1.548). The highest net returns (₹ 40647 ha-1) and B:C ratio (1.72) were recorded by treatment combination v2p1. The study revealed that grain cowpea variety PGCP-6 performed better with respect to growth, yield and economics compared to varieties DC-15 and Kanakamony. Application of 75 per cent RDP + AMF + PSB recorded higher phosphorus uptake and availability and was comparable with the application of 50 per cent RDP + AMF + PSB. Better crop performance in terms of growth, nutrient uptake and yield and yield attributes along with a reduction in 50 per cent recommended dose of P has been achieved through the application of 50 per cent RDP + AMF @ 5 g per plant + PSB @ 20 g per kg of FYM @ 10 g per plant. Variety PGCP-6 managed with the application of 50 per cent RDP supplied with AMF @ 5 g per plant and PSB @ 20 g per kg of FYM @ 10 g per plant had the most favourable effects considering growth, nutrient uptake and yield. Considering the economics of cultivation, PGCP-6 cowpea managed with the RDP as per KAU POP was the best treatment compared to other treatments.Item Enhancing nutrient use efficiency through nanofertilizers in bush type vegetable cowpea (Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata (L.) Verdcourt)(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2023-05-19) Shahna S Salim; Shimi , G JThe study entitled “Enhancing nutrient use efficiency through nanofertilizers in bush type vegetable cowpea (Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata (L.) Verdcourt) was carried out at College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2020-2022 with the objective of evaluating the effect of foliar applied nano-N and nano-Zn on growth, yield and nutrient use efficiency, and working out the economics in bush type vegetable cowpea. The experiment was undertaken during January to March 2022 in Randomized Block Design with ten treatments and three replications. In all the treatments half dose of N, full dose of P and K were given as basal as per the KAU POP recommendation (20:30:10 kg NPK ha-1 ). Remaining N as nano-N and also nano-Zn were given as foliar spray at different intervals. IFFCO Nano urea and Nano-Zn were used as the sources of nano-N and nano-Zn at the rate of 2 mL L-1 respectively. FYM (20 t ha-1 ) and lime (250 kg ha-1 ) were also applied at the time of land preparation. The treatments were T1:50 per cent RDN + nano-N at 15 DAS, 30 DAS; T2:RDN + nanoZn at 30 DAS, 45 DAS; T3:50 per cent RDN + nano-N at 15 DAS + nano-Zn at 30 DAS; T4:50 per cent RDN + nano-N at 15 DAS + nano-Zn at 45 DAS; T5:50 per cent RDN + nano-N at 30 DAS + nano-Zn at 30 DAS; T6:50 per cent RDN + nano-N at 30 DAS + nano-Zn at 45 DAS; T7:50 per cent RDN + nano-N at 15 DAS, 30 DAS + nano-Zn at 30 DAS; T8:50 per cent RDN + nano-N at 15 DAS, 30 DAS + nano-Zn at 45 DAS; T9:50 per cent RDN + nano-N at 15 DAS, 30 DAS + nano-Zn at 30 and 45 DAS; T10:POP (½ N, full P and K basal and ½ N at 15 DAS). An absolute control was also maintained. The variety of cowpea used for the field experiment was Bhagyalakshmi. The results revealed that plant height, number of branches, number of leaves and leaf area per plant, and dry matter production were significantly influenced by foliar application of nano-N and nano-Zn. However, the number of nodules remain unaffected by the treatments. At 30 DAS, significantly taller plants were noticed in T2 (47.75 cm). At 60 DAS and at final harvest T7 produced the tallest plants (77.63 cm and 82.08 cm respectively). The number of branches per plant recorded at 30 DAS was found to be higher (2.72) in T10. At 60 DAS, and at final harveststage, the highest 85 number of branches per plant was seen in T5 (3.69) and T7 (3.95) respectively. The number of leaves and leaf area per plant were significantly higher in T2 (13.08 and 458.23 cm2 , respectively) at 30 DAS. At 60 DAS and at final harvest, T5 resulted in the highest number of leaves (19.42 and 17.92) and leaf area per plant (707.79 cm2 and 406.37 cm2 , respectively). Leaf area index (LAI) and Leaf Area Duration (LAD) were also found to be influenced significantly by the treatments. At 30 DAS, T2 (1.02) recorded the highest leaf area index and it was on par with T10. At 60 DAS and at final harvest stage, the highest leaf area index was obtained in T5 (1.57 and 0.90, respectively) and it was found to be on par with T9, T2 and T7. From 30 to 60 DAS, the highest leaf area index was noticed in T2 (37.35 days) whereas from 60 DAS to final harvest stage, it was the highest in T5 (22.28 days). At 30 DAS, T10 (3.86 g per plant) recorded significantly higher dry matter production while at 60 DAS and at final harvest stage, T5 resulted in significantly the highest dry matter production of 24.89 and 37.36 g per plant respectively which was on par with T2, T7, T9 and T10. In case of yield and yield attributes, the treatment T7 resulted in the highest pod weight (4.77 g). The highest number of pods per plant and pod yield per plant were recorded in T5 (27.80 and 98.31g). The highest pod yield per hectare was observed in T5 (7076 kg ha-1 ) and it was found to be on par with T7, T9, T2 and T10. The treatment T9 recorded the highest haulm yield per plant and haulm yield per hectare of 27.13 g and 4522 kg ha-1 , respectively. Days to 50 percent flowering, pod length, pod girth and harvest index were not considerably affected by the treatments. At 30 DAS, chlorophyll content was found to be superior in T10 (2.88 mg g-1 ) whereas at 60 DAS and at final harvest stage, T5 resulted in significantly higher values of 2.48 mg g-1 and 2.43 mg g-1 , respectively. Crude protein was found to be significantly higher in T5 (35.29 %) and was on par with T9, T7 and T8. Total N, P, K and Zn uptake were found to be significantly higher in T5 (297.28 kg ha-1 , 52.50 kg ha-1 , 66.28 kg ha-1 and 0.61 kg ha-1 , respectively). The treatment T5 recorded significantly higher agronomic efficiency values of 10.47 kg kg-1 , 16.92 kg kg-1 and 10.47 kg kg-1 for N, P and K, respectively. Physiological efficiency was 86 significantly higher in T10 for P (79.94 kg kg-1 ) and K (53.26 kg kg-1 ) whereas for N, it was not significantly influenced by nano-N and nano-Zn application. Apparent recovery for N, P and K was superior in T5 (67.04, 24.90 and 21.93 per cent, respectively). Post experiment soil analysis revealed that treatments had no effect on soil available N, P, K, Zn and organic C. The highest net income (₹ 82,943 ha-1 ) and B:C ratio (1.31) were obtained in T5 (50 per cent RDN + nano-N at 30 DAS + nano-Zn at 30 DAS) and it was found to be on par with T10, T7 and T2. From the study it could be concluded that application of half the recommended dose of N (10 kg ha-1 ), full P (30 kg ha-1 ) and full K (10 kg ha-1 ) as basal dose followed by foliar application of N as nano urea and Zn as nano zinc each at the rate of 2 mL L -1 separately at 30 DAS could result in better growth, yield, nutrient use efficiency and higher economic returns in bush type vegetable cowpea