1. KAUTIR (Kerala Agricultural University Theses Information and Retrieval)

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    Fertigation regimes for seed rhizome production in ginger (Zingiber offcinale Roscoe)
    (Plantation,Spice,Medical and Aromatic Crops,Vellayani, 2026) Fathima Henna
    The study entitled “Fertigation regimes for seed rhizome production in Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)” was carried out inside a naturally ventilated 400 m² polyhouse at RARS, Pattambi, during the period 2024–2025 (Kharif season), with the objective of evaluating the effect of different fertigation regimes on seed rhizome production in ginger. Throughout the growth period, polyhouse conditions averaged 75% relative humidity, 32–35 °C temperature and 4470–8040 lux light intensity during noon hours. The study used the ginger variety ‘Athira’, which was propagated through micro rhizomes obtained from the Centre for Plant Biotechnology and Molecular Biology (CPBMB), College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara. The plants were grown in polybags filled with solarized potting media (soil, sand, coir pith and farm yard manure in equal parts). The experiment was conducted using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with six fertigation regimes with three replications. The treatments consisted of the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF: 0.94:0.63:0.63 g NPK per plant) applied up to 300 days of planting following the conventional split schedule (T₁), RDF applied up to 240 days of planting using a modified split method (T₂), a 10% increase in RDF with the conventional split application (T₃), a 10% increase in RDF following the modified split schedule (T₄), a 20% increase in RDF under the conventional split application (T₅) and a 20% increase in RDF applied through the modified split method (T₆). Nutrients were supplied through fertigation using 19:19:19, urea, potassium nitrate and monoammonium phosphate. Data were collected on growth, physiological traits, quality attributes and rhizome characteristics. Plant growth parameters were recorded at monthly intervals. Observations were recorded on major growth parameters, including plant height, number of leaves per tiller, number of tillers, tiller diameter, leaf length, leaf width, leaf area, internodal length and the fresh and dry matter production of shoots and roots. Among the treatments, T2 (RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) recorded the highest tiller count (29.87). The T6 (20% higher RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) showed superiority in plant height (124.92 cm), leaf length (27.69 cm), leaf area (43.63 cm²) and also recorded the highest shoot fresh weight (746.67 g) and dry weight (121.67 g) at 180 days after planting (DAP). The T5 (20% increased RDF) produced the maximum number of leaves (27.80), the highest root fresh weight at 180 DAP (158.34 g) and at harvest (141.67 g), the highest root dry weight at 180 DAP (43.34 g) and the greatest tiller diameter (0.98 cm). The maximum internodal length (6.13 cm) was recorded in T3 (10% increased RDF), which was statistically on par with T2 (RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) (6.04 cm). Rhizome characters were analyzed at the 8 months after planting (MAP). Rhizome fresh and dry weights, finger numbers, finger length, finger girth, number of nodes per finger and internodal length of fingers were recorded at the time of harvest. The T₂ (RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) recorded the highest rhizome fresh weight (400.33 g), dry weight (85.00 g) and volume (368.00 cc). It produced the maximum number of primary (8.87) and secondary fingers (22.33), with the greatest finger length (12.34 cm in primary and 3.24 cm in secondary), girth (2.75 cm in primary and 1.74 cm in secondary), nodes per finger (21.35 in primary and 5.57 in secondary) and internodal length (0.80 cm in primary and 0.57 cm in secondary). The driage percentage of ginger at harvest was not significantly affected by the different fertigation regimes. Fertigation regimes significantly influenced leaf nutrient status at 5 MAP. The highest leaf nitrogen content was observed in T₅ (3.62 %), followed by T₆ (3.15 %). Phosphorus concentration was highest in T₂ (0.30 %), while potassium content was maximum in T₁ (3.35 %) and T₃ (3.28 %), which were statistically at par. Chlorophyll content was recorded at 5 MAP. T₆ recorded the highest chlorophyll a (1.39 mg g⁻¹), chlorophyll b (0.99 mg g⁻¹) and total chlorophyll (2.37 mg g⁻¹) contents. Quality parameters of rhizomes were recorded at harvest, with volatile oil content highest in T₄ and T₆ (3.25%) and oleoresin concentration highest in T₆ (7.65%). Senescence was observed at 240 DAP, with 100% flowering. Throughout the growing season, no occurrence of soft rot, bacterial wilt or pest infestation was recorded. The study concluded that, for ginger seed rhizome production under polyhouse conditions, a split application of 0.94:0.63:0.63 g NPK per plant up to 240 days of planting is the most effective fertigation regime. It optimizes rhizome yield by supplying nutrients during critical growth and bulking stages, whereas higher nutrient doses primarily enhance vegetative growth.
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    Vegetative malformation in Malabar Tamarind [Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N Robson]
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2026) Aswathy Suresh; Vikram, H C
    Malabar tamarind [Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N. Robson] is a multipurpose tree belonging to the Clusiaceae family and is native to the Western Ghats of India. The species has attained commercial importance due to the presence of Hydroxycitric Acid in its fruit rind, which exhibits anti-obesity properties and is also valued for its antioxidant activity attributed to polyphenols, anthocyanins, and garcinol. In Kerala, the fruit rind, locally referred to as kudampuli, is utilized as a condiment to impart a distinctive sour flavour to traditional cuisine. Previous studies on Malabar tamarind have primarily focused on its taxonomic diversity and phytochemical composition. However, limited research has addressed vegetative malformation, a disorder characterized by stunted leaves, loss of apical dominance, formation of scaly leaf shootlets, shortened internodes, and hypertrophied vegetative buds. These symptoms closely resemble those observed in mango malformation, a condition that substantially reduces flowering and fruit yield. Despite this similar resemblance, comprehensive information regarding the etiology of vegetative malformation in Malabar tamarind is lacking. The present study entitled “Vegetative malformation in Malabar tamarind [Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N. Robson]”, aims to elucidate the physiological, biochemical, and nutritional factors associated with this disorder. The research work was carriedout at the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, during 2023-2025.The study utilized genetic resources of Malabar tamarind conserved at ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Regional Station, Vellanikkara, and Regional Agricultural Research Station, Kumarakom, Kerala Agricultural University, in addition to germplasm obtained through purposive sampling. A comprehensive survey of 352 genotypes across three locations in the first experiment revealed varying levels of malformation incidence. The genotypes conserved at the Regional Agricultural Research Station in Kumarakom exhibited the highest rate of malformation, followed by those conserved at the ICAR-NBPGR, Regional Station, Vellanikkara, whereas the Garcinia block, Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara showed a minimal incidence. Based on symptoms, trees were graded on a scale of 0-5. Eleven accessions, comprising ten malformed and one healthy genotype, were selected for detailed monthly observations from January to September 2025. Analysis of weather parameters revealed significant variations between environmental factors and malformation progression, as well as vegetative parameters. Total sunshine hours showed a significant and negative correlation with malformation incidence (r = -0.854), while relative humidity (r = 0.752) and rainfall (r = 0.703) also exhibited significant and positive correlations. Maximum temperature (r = -0.472) and minimum temperature (r = -0.514) were negatively correlated. Vegetative parameters, such as leaf length, leaf width, petiole length, internodal length, and leaf area, exhibited significant and positive correlations with relative humidity (r = 0.885 to 0.938) and rainfall (r = 0.681 to 0.909), and significant and negative correlations with total sunshine hours (r = -0.583 to -0.880). The nutrient analysis evaluated the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur in healthy and malformed tissues across four seasons. Significant interaction effects between season and tissue type were identified. Healthy tissues consist of higher levels of nitrogen (1.33%), calcium (1.10%), magnesium (0.30%), and sulphur (0.32%) compared to malformed tissues. In contrast, malformed tissues exhibited elevated potassium (0.51%), while phosphorus levels remained similar between tissue types. Nitrogen concentrations were highest during the post-monsoon and monsoon seasons (1.26%). Phosphorus (0.18%) and potassium (0.52%) peaked in winter. Calcium reached its maximum during the monsoon (1.56%), and magnesium was most abundant in summer (0.29%). Malformed tissues had significantly greater protein content (11.62%) than healthy tissues (6.36%), with the highest value observed in winter (17.62%). Ascorbic acid concentrations were significantly higher in healthy tissues (257.42 mg 100 g⁻¹) than in malformed tissues (224.42 mg 100 g⁻¹), with winter exhibiting the highest levels (264.89 mg 100 g⁻¹). Endogenous ethylene was substantially increased in malformed tissues (0.24 µL kg⁻¹ h⁻¹) compared to healthy tissues (0.18 µL kg⁻¹ h⁻¹), supporting the stress ethylene hypothesis. Auxin content was significantly reduced in malformed tissues (1790.24 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹) relative to healthy tissues (2212.38 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹), with the highest auxin levels recorded post-monsoon (3078.46 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹) and the lowest during the monsoon (1285.58 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹). Light microscopy of hand-microtome sections indicated normal cellular morphology in both healthy and malformed tissues. Vegetative malformation in Malabar tamarind appears to be a multifactorial disorder influenced by environmental stress, nutritional deficiencies, and hormonal imbalances. A significant and positive correlation with monsoon conditions, combined with deficiencies of nitrogen, calcium, and magnesium, as well as elevated stress ethylene and reduced auxin levels in malformed tissues, suggests that the disorder develops under physiological stress. These findings offer comprehensive insights into the etiology of vegetative malformation and provide a base for integrated management strategies. Further, research into pathological mechanisms, soil rhizosphere dynamics, and hormonal regulation may help identify the precise causes of these conditions. Additionally, screening and characterizing resistant genotypes will support breeding programmes aimed at developing malformation-tolerant cultivars and conserving genetic resources, thereby promoting the sustainable production of this economically important crop.
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    Fertigation regimes for seed rhizome production in ginger (Zingiber offcinale Roscoe)
    (Department of Plantation,Spices,Medical and Aromatic Crops, Vellayani, 2026) Fathima Henna
    study entitled “Fertigation regimes for seed rhizome production in Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)” was carried out inside a naturally ventilated 400 m² polyhouse at RARS, Pattambi, during the period 2024–2025 (Kharif season), with the objective of evaluating the effect of different fertigation regimes on seed rhizome production in ginger. Throughout the growth period, polyhouse conditions averaged 75% relative humidity, 32–35 °C temperature and 4470–8040 lux light intensity during noon hours. The study used the ginger variety ‘Athira’, which was propagated through micro rhizomes obtained from the Centre for Plant Biotechnology and Molecular Biology (CPBMB), College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara. The plants were grown in polybags filled with solarized potting media (soil, sand, coir pith and farm yard manure in equal parts). The experiment was conducted using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with six fertigation regimes with three replications. The treatments consisted of the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF: 0.94:0.63:0.63 g NPK per plant) applied up to 300 days of planting following the conventional split schedule (T₁), RDF applied up to 240 days of planting using a modified split method (T₂), a 10% increase in RDF with the conventional split application (T₃), a 10% increase in RDF following the modified split schedule (T₄), a 20% increase in RDF under the conventional split application (T₅) and a 20% increase in RDF applied through the modified split method (T₆). Nutrients were supplied through fertigation using 19:19:19, urea, potassium nitrate and monoammonium phosphate. Data were collected on growth, physiological traits, quality attributes and rhizome characteristics. Plant growth parameters were recorded at monthly intervals. Observations were recorded on major growth parameters, including plant height, number of leaves per tiller, number of tillers, tiller diameter, leaf length, leaf width, leaf area, internodal length and the fresh and dry matter production of shoots and roots. Among the treatments, T2 (RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) recorded the highest tiller count (29.87). The T6 (20% higher RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) showed superiority in plant height (124.92 cm), leaf length (27.69 cm), leaf area (43.63 cm²) and also recorded the highest shoot fresh weight (746.67 g) and dry weight (121.67 g) at 180 days after planting (DAP). The T5 (20% increased RDF) produced the maximum number of leaves (27.80), the highest root fresh weight at 180 DAP (158.34 g) and at harvest (141.67 g), the highest root dry weight at 180 DAP (43.34 g) and the greatest tiller diameter (0.98 cm). The maximum internodal length (6.13 cm) was recorded in T3 (10% increased RDF), which was statistically on par with T2 (RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) (6.04 cm). Rhizome characters were analyzed at the 8 months after planting (MAP). Rhizome fresh and dry weights, finger numbers, finger length, finger girth, number of nodes per finger and internodal length of fingers were recorded at the time of harvest. The T₂ (RDF with split application up to 240 days of planting) recorded the highest rhizome fresh weight (400.33 g), dry weight (85.00 g) and volume (368.00 cc). It produced the maximum number of primary (8.87) and secondary fingers (22.33), with the greatest finger length (12.34 cm in primary and 3.24 cm in secondary), girth (2.75 cm in primary and 1.74 cm in secondary), nodes per finger (21.35 in primary and 5.57 in secondary) and internodal length (0.80 cm in primary and 0.57 cm in secondary). The driage percentage of ginger at harvest was not significantly affected by the different fertigation regimes. Fertigation regimes significantly influenced leaf nutrient status at 5 MAP. The highest leaf nitrogen content was observed in T₅ (3.62 %), followed by T₆ (3.15 %). Phosphorus concentration was highest in T₂ (0.30 %), while potassium content was maximum in T₁ (3.35 %) and T₃ (3.28 %), which were statistically at par. Chlorophyll content was recorded at 5 MAP. T₆ recorded the highest chlorophyll a (1.39 mg g⁻¹), chlorophyll b (0.99 mg g⁻¹) and total chlorophyll (2.37 mg g⁻¹) contents. Quality parameters of rhizomes were recorded at harvest, with volatile oil content highest in T₄ and T₆ (3.25%) and oleoresin concentration highest in T₆ (7.65%). Senescence was observed at 240 DAP, with 100% flowering. Throughout the growing season, no occurrence of soft rot, bacterial wilt or pest infestation was recorded. The study concluded that, for ginger seed rhizome production under polyhouse conditions, a split application of 0.94:0.63:0.63 g NPK per plant up to 240 days of planting is the most effective fertigation regime. It optimizes rhizome yield by supplying nutrients during critical growth and bulking stages, whereas higher nutrient doses primarily enhance vegetative growth.
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    Growth and development of rhizomes in small cardamom [Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton]
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, 2025) Devika, M P.; Nimisha Mathews; Reji Rani, O P.
    The thesis work entitled “Growth and development of rhizomes in small cardamom [Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton] types” was conducted at Cardamom Research Station, Pampadumpara, Idukki during 2023 to 2025. The study aimed at identification of variations in growth and development of rhizomes as well as rhizomatization behaviour of cultivated small cardamom types in the high ranges of Idukki. The present study was conducted through two experiments to assess the growth and development of rhizomes in small cardamom types at monthly interval for period of one year. The first experiment involved plants raised from suckers, while the second focused on those raised from seedlings. Completely Randomised Design (CRD) consisting of 3 treatments (cultivated types) with 5 replications each were followed. The three treatments were T1 (Malabar), T2 (Vazhukka) and T3 (Mysore). The growth parameters, physiological parameters, qualitative as well as quantitative characters of rhizomes and rhizome and root anatomy were recorded and analysed statistically. Significant cultivar-wise differences were observed. For growth parameters, In sucker raised plants, T3 (Mysore) recorded the highest mother tiller height (190.56 cm at 3 MAP) subsequent senescence caused a gradual decline in height. T3 (Mysore) recorded the highest tiller thickness (3.04 cm at 5 MAP) in sucker propagated plants, 2.75 cm at 12 MAP in seedling raised plants. In physiological parameters study, T3 (Mysore) exhibited significantly higher dry matter content of leaves at 12 MAP in suckers (59.40 g) and T2 (Vazhukka) in seedlings (40.03 g). T3 (Mysore) exhibited significantly higher dry matter content of pseudostem at most of the observation stages in both sucker (322.99 g) as well as seedling raised plants (69.85 g). T3 (Mysore) exhibited significantly higher dry matter content of pseudostem at most of the observation stages in both sucker (322.99 g) as well as seedling raised plants (69.85 g). 150 In sucker-propagated small cardamom, the plant base colour remained relatively stable over the 12-month period. T1 (Malabar) exhibited a consistent medium purple pink (N66B), T2 (Vazhukka) showed dominant shades of medium brown green (146C) and medium blue pink (N66D), while T3 (Mysore) featured medium green (140B), light blue pink (69A), and medium blue pink (68C). In seedling-raised plants, the base colour across all types was initially medium green (144A, 140B) from 1 to 4 MAP, transitioning to medium purple pink (N66B) and medium blue pink (N66D) from 5 MAP onward. Rhizome shape in sucker-propagated small cardamom plants showed distinct cultivar-specific patterns: T1 (Malabar) maintained a straight form throughout, T2 (Vazhukka) consistently displayed a curved shape, while T3 (Mysore) exhibited both straight and curved forms. In seedling-propagated plants, T1 retained straight rhizomes, T2 shifted from straight to curved over time, and T3 showed a consistent mix of both shapes. Rhizome skin and flesh colours varied dynamically over the 12-month period in both propagation methods. Skin colour transitioned from lighter yellow-green (154D) to darker green-brown shades (152D, 153D), while flesh colour shifted from light green (145C) to light yellow (150D). Surface texture in sucker-grown plants remained rough throughout, except in newly emerging finger rhizomes, whereas in seedlings, the texture gradually changed from smooth to rough over time. In quantitative rhizome characters, significant difference were observed at early (1-4 MAP), mid (5-8 MAP) and late (9-12 MAP) stages of observation. In sucker-propagated plants, T3 (Mysore) recorded the highest rhizome length during early to mid growth stages (9.24–10.30 cm), while in seedlings, it declined to 2.56–6.74 cm at later stages. T2 (Vazhukka) consistently showed greater rhizome width in suckers (23.17–39.20 mm), while in seedlings, significant differences were noted only at the mid stage. Finger rhizomes in suckers showed a steady node increase, with T2 (Vazhukka) highest (3.00–14.00), followed by T3 (Mysore) (4.80–12.40) and T1 (Malabar) (2.80–12.75). In seedlings, nodes appeared after 3 MAP; T1 (Malabar) had the highest count (1.90–9.40), followed by T2 (2.57–9.40) and T3 151 (2.40–8.63), with no significant differences. Internodes in seedlings increased steadily, with T3 leading (2.60–9.20), followed by T2 (2.20–9.60) and T1 (2.40–8.80). In suckers, internodes rose progressively with T2 (Vazhukka) showing significantly higher mid-stage values (2.40–13.00), followed by T3 (4.00–11.40) and T1 (2.20–11.75). In seedlings, internodes appeared post 3 MAP with no significant variation; T1 (1.50–8.40) led, followed by T2 (1.97–8.40) and T3 (1.80–7.83). T3 (Mysore) seedlings had the longest roots by 12 MAP (6.12–39.07 cm), followed by T1 (6.06–34.27 cm) and T2 (5.73–33.59 cm). In sucker-raised plants, root width was highest in T2 (3.70–7.69 mm), followed by T3 (3.60–7.35 mm). In seedlings, T2 (1.75–4.98 mm) and T3 (1.76–4.89 mm) showed comparable higher widths, with significant variation only at 12 MAP. Fibrous root mat diameter was highest in sucker-grown T2 (24.37–70.16 cm) across early to mid stages. T1 (Malabar) exhibited significantly higher shoot emergence in suckers at later growth stages (1.40–12.80). The study revealed distinct patterns in rhizome growth, development, and behavior, along with associated morphological and anatomical traits, across the three major cultivars—Malabar, Mysore, and Vazhukka—under both seedling- and sucker-origin propagation. Notably, variations in rhizome dynamics were closely linked to differences in vegetative performance, emphasizing the influence of cultivar type on both below- and above-ground growth throughout the study period. Plants raised from suckers consistently exhibited earlier and more vigorous vegetative growth, stable rhizome pigmentation, and better mineral accumulation compared to seedling-derived plants. Among cultivars, T3 (Mysore) showed superior vegetative traits and higher biomass accumulation; T2 (Vazhukka) displayed early bud initiation and delayed senescence; while T1 (Malabar) produced more tillers in sucker-propagated plants. Both Mysore and Vazhukka demonstrated strong potential for rhizome improvement. 152 Anatomically, all cultivars exhibited typical monocotyledonous structures closely resembling ginger, with no significant differences among them, reflecting structural consistency within the Zingiberaceae family. Rhizome traits showed progressive improvement across treatments and proved to be reliable indicators for selection, characterization, and crop improvement. These findings support the development of a standardized rhizome descriptor by integrating rhizome-specific traits into the existing cardamom descriptor framework, thereby enhancing cultivar identification accuracy, facilitating effective germplasm management, and supporting Distinctness, Uniformity, and Stability (DUS) testing.
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    Characterization of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Presl.) Accessions
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2024-03-05) Muhammed Musthafa, T M; Vikram, H C
    Cinnamon assumes considerable importance among the perennial spices of the world as one of the most extensively used spices in the food and beverage industries. The commercial form of cinnamon is derived from the dried inner bark of the Cinnamomum verum Presl., a member of the Lauraceae family. Sri Lanka has a unique identity I producing the world’s finest quality cinnamon. In India, Meghalaya is the primary producer, though Meghalaya predominantly contributes tejpat (Cinnamomum tamala Th. Nees & Eberm) Kerala ranks sixth in the contribution of true cinnamon, making up 0.17 per cent of the total national production. The present study entitled “Characterization of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Presl.) accessions” aims to systematically examine the morpho-biochemical characteristics and evaluate the yield of cinnamon accessions grown in the high-altitude region (AEU 21) of Kerala. The study was based on cinnamon accessions of seedling origin conserved as ex-situ at the Regional Agricultural Research Station, Amabalavayal. These accessions aged about 25 years were collected from various cinnamon-growing regions and maintained through regular coppicing. A single tree represents each accession. The morphological characterization of 21 qualitative and 16 quantitative characters from the selected accessions were recorded. In the biochemical characterization, volatile oil and oleoresin from dried bark and fresh leaves from all fifty accessions were analysed. Chemical profiling of bark volatile oil was performed for superior cinnamon accessions. A modified minimal descriptor for cinnamon with a set of 21 qualitative parameters as well as descriptor states for each character was developed as the first step of the study, referring to the previous work (Krishnamoorthy et al., 1996, Azad et al., 2019 and Liyanage et al., 2020). The developed minimal descriptor for cinnamon was further subjected to the characterization of cinnamon accessions. A wide variability was further subjected to the characterization of cinnamon accessions. A wide variability was observed for 13 out of 21 qualitative characters. The study revealed that, 7 out of 11 leaf characters; 3 out of inflorescence and floral characters; all four bark characters showed variability in the cinnamon accessions. However, no variation was observed in the fruit characters. Overall, eight qualitative characters were noted as non-variable characters; hence, these were not considered for further analysis. Based on the 13 qualitative variables, accessions were delineated into four discernible clusters at a scale height nine. In the present study, considerable variation was observed among the cinnamon accessions for most of the quantitative characters. The maximum coefficient of variation was observed for inflorescence length (41.72%). Quantitative characters, viz., number of shoots per stump and dry weight of quill, were found to record more than 30 per cent of coefficient of variation. Characters recorded more than 20 per cent coefficient of variation were fresh weight of quill, leaf area, dried bark thickness, plant height, leaf oleoresin and bark volatile oil. The quill dry weight varied among the accessions and ranged from 26.50 g (Acc.20) to 103.00 g (Acc.34) per coppice. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) distinguished the distribution of quantitative characteristics into two dimensions. The first two principal axes (Dim.1 and dim. 2) explained 49.40 per cent of the total cumulative percentage of variance. The contents of volatile oil (0.35 to 1.10%; 0.5 to 2.05%) and oleoresin (7.30 to 19.40%;1.65 to 7.75%) differed significantly in both bark and leaves of cinnamon accessions, respectively. The association study through Pearson’s correlation coefficient method revealed that the fresh weight of the quill was found to have a positive and significant correlation with the dry weight of the quill, plant height, and mean firth of the coppice. Meanwhile, dry weight of the quill was found to be positive and significant with the fresh weight of the quill, plant height, bark recovery, and mean girth of the coppice. Fifty selected cinnamon accessions were ranked based on the four key yield and quality parameters namely, number of shoots per stump, bark recovery, dry bark yield, and bark volatile oil, which have a direct effect on economic importance. Subsequently, five cinnamon accessions, viz., Acc. 12, Acc. 28, Acc. 34, Acc. 39, and Acc. 56, were identified as superior performing accessions and further subjected to chemical profiling using the GC-MS technique. About fifteen constituents were identified through the analysis of bark volatiles using GC-MS. Cinnamaldehyde was a prime constituent present in cinnamon bark oil. Of the five accessions, cinnamaldehyde was present in four, and content ranged from 27.77 (Acc.28) to 40.32 (Acc.56) per cent. The Acc. 12 was dominated by linalool (34.35%). The cinnamyl acetate was predominant in all five accessions. The PCA revealed the distribution of biochemical constituents among the different principal components. Which was mainly focused on the first two principal axes (Dim. 1 and Dim. 2, constituting 86.50 per cent of the total cumulative percentage of variance. From the study considerable variation was observed between the accessions for the morphological and biochemical characters. Based on yield, its components and other quality parameter, five promising accessions were identified. These accessions varied significantly for organic acides and had high cinnamaldehyde as well as unique in linalool content. These genotypes may be targeted for further genetic improvement or be utilized in selection method of breeding programme for developing high yielding cinnamon varieties which is also rich volatile constituents for high altitude tropical conditions.
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    Characterization of Cochin ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) genotypes
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025-01-13) Sufaid, C T.; Nair Sunil Appukuttan
    Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a globally cherished rhizomatous spice acclaimed for its unique flavour, aroma, and therapeutic properties. It is a rich source of zingiberene, a monocyclic sesquiterpene that forms the primary component of its essential oil and imparts ginger’s unique flavour. India has the highest cultivar diversity of ginger in the world. Indian ginger is considered as the best in world market because of its high zingiberene and fibre content. These are marketed as whole, powder and in dried form. Among the export type ginger, Cochin Ginger (CG) has a great demand. The CG is a traded ginger variety grown in central region of Kerala. The CG is renowned for its quality features in the global market viz., α-zingiberene content, β-sesquiphellandrene, camphene, citral, starch and crude fibre content etc. The inner core colour of this rhizome is bright yellow. According to the specifications of the export industry, traded Cochin ginger should have zingiberene content ranging from 28 to 31 per cent, the volatile oil from 1.8 to 3 per cent and citral content from 0.29 to 0.7 per cent. Due to its high zingiberene content, Cochin ginger has gained popularity in the global market and is primarily exported to the USA and Europe. As the farmers in the state preferred cultivation of the high rhizome yielding varieties which fetches higher price by selling vegetable ginger and whole ginger, the cultivation of the local cultivars of the ginger such as Cochin ginger with a comparative lower rhizome yield but higher volatile oil and zingiberene content, is on the decline. The declining area of cultivation of the local Cochin ginger types has caused unavailability of the quality rhizomes for export purpose. This alarming situation was revealed by the All-India Spices Export forum in Kochi and subsequently raised as a query in the parliament demanding immediate solutions. The proposed research was thus conceived this pressing issue. The research thus focused on collecting, identifying pure Cochin ginger genotypes from the local genotypes and evaluating these on basis of yield and quality parameters. Thus, it will increase the production potential for meeting the export demands. The study was carried out from 2022 to 2024 at the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal, and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur. The study was centered on twenty-six genotypes, including a check variety (KAU Chithra) suitable for dry ginger. The CG genotypes were collected from ginger growing tracts of Idukki, Kottayam, Ernakulam, Thrissur, and Palakkad. These genotypes were evaluated for the morphological, biochemical, and yield traits. On analysis of the genotypes, considerable variation both in case of morphological and biochemical characteristics was observed. Among the morphological traits, CG 47, CG 44, CG 53, and CG 22 were identified as superior. Additionally, CG 47, CG 46, CG 53, and CG 52 excelled in rhizome traits and contributed the highest yield among the genotypes. Similarly, there was considerable variation in biochemical characteristics such as zingiberene, volatile oil, oleoresin, crude fiber, and starch content. Zingiberene, the most crucial biochemical compound in ginger, ranged from 21.30 per cent to 35.90 per cent across the genotypes. The CG 52 and CG 46 exhibited the highest zingiberene content. Based on these biochemical traits, CG 47, CG 46, CG 53, and CG 52 were identified as superior genotypes. Principal component analysis of the quantitative parameters revealed six principal components with eigen values exceeding one, collectively accounting for 79.79 per cent of the variability. Among the genotypes, diseases such as leaf spot and rhizome rot were detected and shoot borer infestation was also observed in the field. All genotypes were vulnerable to the shoot borer, except for CG 40, CG 44, CG 47, and CG 53. The incidence of leaf spot and rhizome rot was assessed using the per cent disease index (PDI). The PDI of leaf spot ranged from 0.00 to 68.44 per cent, while rhizome rot ranged from 0.00 to 64.20 per cent. On basis of the PDI, CG 29 was found to be highly susceptible to rhizome rot, and CG 44 showed susceptibility to leaf spot disease. The cluster analysis of the genotypes revealed four clusters. The cluster I contained four genotypes, the cluster II included five genotypes, and the cluster III consisted of four genotypes. The remaining thirteen genotypes were grouped into cluster IV. Correlation analysis of CG genotypes indicated that average rhizome yield was positively correlated with factors such as the number of leaves, leaf length, plant height, rhizome inter-node pattern, rhizome length, number of primary and secondary rhizomes, weight of primary and secondary rhizomes, as well as total rhizome weight per plant. Zingiberene content showed a positive correlation with dry recovery and volatile oil content. Fiber content was positively correlated with the number of tillers, rhizome length, and oleoresin content but was negatively correlated with the weight of the primary rhizome and rhizome width. Five top-performing genotypes were chosen based on the mean scores of transformed values for traits such as plant height, rhizome weight, average yield, volatile oil content, zingiberene, and fiber content. The selected genotypes were CG 27, CG 46, CG 47, CG 52, and CG 53. The volatile oil profiling from these promising genotypes were collected and analyzed using GC-MS. Chemoprofiling of the superior Cochin ginger genotypes revealed the presence of key compounds such as zingiberene, α-sesquiphellandrene, α-bisabolene, α-curcumene, α-citral, α-farnesene, and 1,8-cineol. Zingiberene content ranged from 29.61 per cent (CG 53) to 35.90 per cent (CG 52). α-sesquiphellandrene was highest in CG 52 at 16.85 per cent and lowest in CG 47 at 14.74 per cent. α-curcumene content varied from 5.18 per cent (CG 52) to 10.30 per cent (CG 53). Citral compounds were present in varying amounts, ranging from 0.71 per cent (CG 52) to 5.53 per cent (CG 47). The five promising genotypes CG 27, CG 46, CG 47, CG 52, and CG 53 were identified based on their rhizome yield and quality. The rhizome yield of these genotypes ranged from 12.08 t/ha (CG-52) to 30.92 t/ha (CG-47). As these genotypes meet the specifications of the export industry, they may be suitable genotypes for export purposes. Future research should focus on the molecular characterization of CG genotypes to identify key genetic markers and traits. Multi-location trials of the ideal genotypes will offer valuable data on their performance and adaptability across different environmental conditions. The superior CG genotypes may be taken up for large-scale multiplication in the niche areas to ensure a consistent supply of elite CG types. Securing a GI (Geographical Indication) tag for these genotypes may also increase their market value and recognition, preserving their unique identity and contributing to regional economic growth.
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    Variability studies in Bhringaraj(Eclipta prostrata L.)
    (Department of Plantation ,Spices, Medicinal And Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2024-12-23) Anite Titus.; Sangeetha, K S
    Eclipta prostrata L. (Bhringaraj), a member of the Asteraceae family, stands out as a well-known medicinal plant, popularly surged due to its historical therapeutic use in Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha formulations and acknowledged pharmacological properties. Bhringaraj is popularly known as the king of hairs due to its immense potential to promote hair growth. Furthermore, it is renowned for its hepatoprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, immunostimulant, antitumor, memory- enhancing, and anti-diabetic properties. Eclipta prostrata L. (vernacular names: false daisy, Bhringaraj, Keshraj, Karisalankanni, Kayyonni) is a herbaceous plant with diminutive branches and clusters of white axillary or terminal inflorescences, flourishes as an annual plant in moist habitats, where the whole plant holds substantial economic value. Despite its classification as Least Concern by the IUCN in 2016, there is a pressing necessity for the exploration and conservation of E. prostrata germplasm due to heightened demand for natural products leading to unsustainable harvesting practices. Scientific investigation is essential to elucidate the morphological characteristics, agronomic properties, and sustainable harvesting practices necessary for the conservation of its ecosystems, mainly focusing on the variability of genotypes suitable for commercial cultivation in India, especially in Kerala, where wild habitats are a primary source for medicinal plants. In this framework, the present investigation entitled “Variability studies in Bhringaraj (Eclipta prostrata L.)” was taken up with the objective of assessing the variability in morphological, yield, and quality parameters of Bhringaraj genotypes. The study was conducted at the experimental farm of the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal, and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, from 2023 to 2024. The study encompassed a total of twenty-five genotypes, which comprised collections from the ICAR-NBPGR Regional Station, Thrissur, as well as local collections sourced from various districts within Kerala, including Kottayam, Thrissur, Malappuram, Idukki, Trivandrum, Kasaragod, and Kollam. Significant variations in morphological, yield, and quality characters were identified through the examination of both qualitative and quantitative attributes. Qualitative traits, encompassing growth patterns, stem morphology, leaf and inflorescence characters, and seed attributes, weresystematically recorded, with the leaf attachment, leaf margin, inflorescence shape, and seed colour exhibiting no variability. Furthermore, considerable variations were noted in the quantitative characters pertaining to plant, leaf, inflorescence, and yield parameters. The biochemical metrics, encompassing total alkaloid, phenol, and saponin concentrations, exhibited a range of 0.60 to 6.20 per cent, 41.35 to 180.29 milligrams per gram, and 1.20 to 3.25 per cent, respectively, demonstrating notable variations. The comparative study of different solvents, comprising aqueous, ethanol, and methanol, in the preliminary phytochemical screening of E. prostrata demonstrated that ethanol was the most efficacious solvent for phytochemical extraction, followed by methanol for optimal yield. The evaluation of genotypic and phenotypic variance coefficients (GCV and PCV), alongside heritability and genetic advancement in E. prostrata accessions, indicated significant genetic diversity, as reflected by elevated GCV and PCV values across various traits such as plant height, number of primary and secondary branches per plant, number of nodes per plant, internodal length, leaf dimensions, days to first and 50 per cent flowering, and yield metrics. Thus, it suggested a broad genetic base with notable heritability and genetic gain, underscoring the significance of additive gene effects. Correlation analyses utilizing Pearson’s correlation coefficient indicated a noteworthy positive association between fresh whole plant yield per plant and various morphological traits, including plant height, internodal length, leaf length, leaf width, leaf area, and inflorescence diameter. Additionally, the total alkaloid content showed a substantial positive correlation with plant height, internodal length, leaf length, leaf width, leaf area, days to first flowering, and days to 50 per cent flowering. In contrast, a negative correlation was observed with the number of primary branches per plant. The evaluation and ranking of 25 E. prostrata genotypes based on yield-correlated traits led to the recognition of nine elite genotypes: EP 24, EP 7, EP 4, EP 11, EP 12, EP 16, EP 17, EP 20, and EP 15. Chemo profiling of methanolic extracts from selected nine superior genotypes and prostrate type, EP 23, through GC-MS analysis demonstrated a diverse range of phytochemicals, with n-hexadecanoic acid predominating in seven out of 10 genotypesWhile EP 15, EP 24, and EP 11 were characterized by major compounds including 6- [[5-(Hydroxymethyl)-2,5,8a-trimethyl-1,4,4a,6,7,8-hexahydronaphthalen-1-yl]methyl] -3-methylidene-7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]heptane-2, 2-Hydroxy-3,5,6-trimethyl-benzo-1,4- quinone, and Quinic acid, respectively. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of quantitative traits identified 19 principal components, where the leading five components collectively explained 78.39 per cent of the variance with eigenvalues greater than one, alongside with significant clustering in the second and third quadrants and a scattered distribution of accessions across all quadrants. Further, the K prototype cluster analysis utilising the Gower distance and Ward D2 clustering methods grouped the genotypes into five clusters based on 16 qualitative and 19 quantitative traits. The majority of accessions were classified within Cluster II (12), with lesser representation in Cluster III (6) and Cluster V (4). Conversely, Cluster I (1) and Cluster IV (2) exhibited the lowest number of accessions. The current study revealed substantial diversity in 41 traits, comprising 12 qualitative, 22 quantitative, and three biochemical, associated with morphological, yield, and quality characteristics among 25 genotypes of E. prostrata. Ethanol is the most efficient solvent for phytochemical extraction, with methanol being the second most effective. The nine superior genotypes were identified as superior with a noteworthy positive correlation between fresh whole plant yield and yield-associated morphological traits, combined with distinct phytochemical profile variations among accessions identified through GC-MS analysis. These genotypes could be pivotal in advancing crop enhancement and breeding high-yielding varieties through selective breeding, thus facilitating the commercial cultivation of the crop. Further evaluation may be done on the vegetative propagation of E. prostrata for quick enhancement of elite types. Comprehensive chemo profiling and molecular characterization of genotypes, alongside the assessment of their pharmacological properties and potential clinical trials involving animal experimentation, as well as screening for downy mildewresistance, may be conducted.
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    Characterization of Alleppey turmeric(Curcuma longa L.) genotypes
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2024-12-03) Merlin Abraham.; Sunil Appukuttan Nair
    Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is a major rhizomatous spice grown in India belonging to the Zingiberaceae family. It is recognized as a rich source of curcumin, a bright yellow bioactive polyphenolic pigment that has been extensively studied for its health benefits. India has the highest cultivar diversity of turmeric and Indian turmeric is considered as the best in world market because of its high curcumin content and colour. These are marketed as whole, ground form and as extracts. Among the export type, Alleppey finger turmeric (AFT) is in great demand. AFT is a traded turmeric variety grown in central region of Kerala. During colonial rule, AFT was exported from Alleppey port located in Alleppey district of Kerala and hence the name Alleppey Finger Turmeric was derived. This turmeric is unique to the ideal higher colour value, more flavour and easy to grind. The inner core colour of this rhizome is deep yellow to orange. The curcumin content present in the turmeric ranges from 5 to 6.5 per cent, and the oil ranges from 1.8 to 3.5 per cent. Due to its high curcumin content, it has gained popularity in the global market and is primarily exported to the United States. However, the introduction of high yielding improved varieties for cultivation in Kerala has led to gradual decline in the AFT types. Recently, the members of All India Spices Export Forum raised the issue of non-availability of AFT for exports during the department related parliamentary standing committee meeting held in Kochi during 2022. In view of the non availability of AFT, the present study was carried out to collect, identify and evaluate AFT genotypes based on the growth, yield and quality parameters and thereby increase the production potential for export purposes. The study was conducted at the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur during 2022 to 2024. The study included twenty eight genotypes including check varieties such as Kanthi and Shobha released from Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur and IISR Alleppey Supreme from Indian Institute of Spices Research Calicut. AFT genotypes were collected from Idukki, Kottayam, Ernakulam, Pathanamthitta, Thrissur and Palakkad. These accessions were evaluated in the field for morphological, biochemical and yield traits. The data analysed showed wide variation in the morphological and biochemical characters. In the case of morphological characters AFT 21, AFT 45 and AFT 50 were found to be superior. AFT 45, AFT 12, AFT 31 and AFT 21 were superior in rhizome characters and contributed highest yield among the genotypes. The principal component analysis of quantitative parameters showed first five principal components with eigen value more than one and it contributed to the 72.92 per cent of variability. Similarly, wide variation was also observed in the biochemical characteristics such as curcumin content, volatile oil content, oleoresin content and starch content. Curcumin, the most important biochemical pigment in turmeric varied from 4.32 to 5.89 per cent in the genotypes. AFT 12 and AFT 21 had the highest curcumin content. Based on these biochemical parameters, AFT 12, AFT 19, AFT 21 and AFT 31 were found as superior. Principal component analysis of biochemical characters revealed that only one principal component had the eigen value more than one and it contributed to 52.73 per cent of cumulative percentage of variance. Among the genotypes diseases such as leaf spot, leaf blotch and rhizome rot were detected and infestation of pest such as shoot borer was also observed in the field. All the genotypes were susceptible to shoot borer and leaf spot. Incidence of leaf blotch was calculated based on per cent disease index (PDI). The PDI ranged from zero to 63.22 per cent. Kanthi, Varna and AFT 40 were highly susceptible to leaf blotch disease. Cluster analysis was done and genotypes were classified into three cluster. First cluster consisted of eleven genotypes and second cluster comprised of six genotypes. Remaining eleven genotypes were included in cluster III. Correlation analysis of AFT genotypes revealed that average rhizome yield was directly correlated with plant height, number of tillers, rhizome weight per plant, length of primary rhizome and width of rhizome. Curcumin content was positively correlated with leaf width, duration of crop, number and weight of mother rhizome. Conversely, it was negatively correlated with rhizome yield, number and weight of secondary rhizomes, length of primary rhizome, internodal length and volatile oil content. Five superior genotypes were selected based on the mean score of transformed values of characters such as rhizome weight per plant, average yield, curcumin content and oleoresin content. Selected genotypes were AFT 12, AFT 19, AFT 21, AFT 31 and AFT 45. The volatile oils of these promising genotypes were collected and subjected to GC-MS. Chemoprofiling of superior turmeric varieties revealed the presence of major compounds such as Ar-turmerone, turmerone, curlone, á-sesquiphellandrene, (ñ)-trans nuciferol, zingiberene, à-curcumene, 2-thujene etc. The Ar-turmerone content ranged from 28.10 (AFT 31) to 31.08 per cent (AFT 12). Turmerone content was superior in AFT 19 with 26.42 per cent and lowest in AFT 45 with 14 per cent. Curlone content varied from 18.07 (AFT 45) to 23.15 per cent (AFT 21). Together, these three compounds account for more than 60 per cent of the total identified compounds. The five genotypes viz., AFT 12, AFT 19, AFT 21, AFT 31, and AFT 45 were found promising genotypes based on rhizome yield and quality. These genotypes could be ideal genotypes for export purposes. However future evaluation on basis of multi location trials to be done to check their stability and future breeding programmes need to be checked out.
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    Seed requirements for quality cashew sprout production
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, Vellanikkara, 2023-03-23) Suma Madhavan; Jalaja S Menon
    Cashew is an important dollar earning plantation crop grown for its delicious kernels. In Kerala, during harvest few nuts may escape collection and the hidden ones will germinate with the onset of rain. These germinated nuts called as cashew sprouts are traditional delicacy among rural people. Cashew Research Station, Madakkathara has commercialised the traditional technology of sprout production which open up an alternative market to cashew growers. Sprout and micro greens are now popular owing to its nutritive value. Commercialization of traditional technology of cashew sprout production needs systematic study on influence of seed nuts characteristics on quality of produce. In this context, the study was formulated to evaluate the response of seed nut size, pre-soaking treatments and varieties on production of quality cashew sprout. The cashew seed nuts available at cashew research station Madakkathara used as study material and the production was done in a specially designed germination chamber. The seed nut size had significant influence on sprouting behaviour and recovery of sprout. Small (below 5 g) and medium (5-7 g) sized nuts recorded lowest mean sprouting time (14.02 and 14. 52 respectively), days to sprout (12 and 12.33 respectively). But there was no significant difference in percent sprouting. Whereas cotyledon recovery (5.76g) and total weight of sprout (7.73g) were significantly high in sprout produced from large seed nut (above 7g). However, the total outturn of sprout from one kilogram of seed nuts was significantly high when small seed nut of below 5 g was used for sprout production (710.5g/kg). The study also elucidated that total outturn had significant negative correlation with seed size, mean sprouting time and days to sprout and significant positive correlation with percent sprouting and sprouting index. Influence of storage of seed nuts on sprouting has shown that there was no significant difference in percent sprouting and sprouting behaviour in seed nuts of current season harvest and seed nuts of previous season harvest stored under temperature 21 0C and relative humidity of 65 %. All seed nuts of previous season harvest stored under ambient condition failed to germinate even with various presoaking treatment. While evaluating the 14 pre-soaking treatments of seed nuts of current season on sprouting behaviour, it was observed that highest percent sprouting (87.5%) was observed in treatment T3 (soaking in water for 72 hours). The days to sprout (11.5 days), days to fifty percent sprouting (13.83days) and mean sprouting time (13.62 days) was significantly low in the same treatment. The seed nut of previous season harvest stored in storage chamber recorded the highest percent germination (80%) days to sprout (12.50 days), days to fifty percent sprouting (14.12 days) and mean sprouting time (13 days) in treatment T4 (soaking of nuts in water for 96 hours.).The pre-soaking has no significant difference in cotyledon characters, total weight of sprout and cotyledon recovery of sprout. The outturn of sprout from one kilogram of seed nut was significantly high when seed nut were pre-soaked in water for 72 hours. The harvested sprouts stored in aluminium laminated cover recorded the lowest physiological loss in weight. The overall acceptability of stored sprout was also significantly good when stored in aluminium laminated cover. The colour of the sprout retained when stored in aluminium laminated cover up to 4 days (150- medium yellow green – A). The viable bacterial count and fungal count was significantly low in sprout stored under aluminium laminated cover. Cashew varieties showed significant difference in sprouting behaviour and recovery of cashew sprout. The percent sprouting was significantly high in variety Anakkayam-1 (97%) and VRI-3 (96%). The total weight of sprout and cotyledon recovery recorded significantly high values in variety NRCC Selection-2 (8.67, 6.76 g respectively).The outturn of sprout from one kg of seed nut was significantly high in variety Anakkayam-1 (675 g/ kg). The outturn of variety Madakkathra-1 (588.4g/kg) was at par. The bio chemical qualities of sprout viz. total sugar (3.3 %), iron (18.65 mg/100g), protein (3.05g/100g) free amino acid (3.33g/100g) were significantly high in variety Anakkayam-1 .The tannin content was the lowest in variety Anakkayam-1 (2.82mg/100g) and Madakkathara-1 (3.70mg/100g).The organoleptic qualities of variety Anakkayam-1, was also preferred over other varieties.
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    Growth, yield and curcumin production in turmeric (curcuma longa L.) mediated by chitosan application
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2024-03-27) Shibana, S N.; Deepa, S Nair
    The research programme entitled “Growth, yield and curcumin production in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) mediated by chitosan application” was carried out in the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during 2021 to 2023 with an objective to evaluate the effect of different modes and frequency of application of chitosan (CTS) on plant growth, yield and secondary metabolite production in Curcuma longa. The present study was carried out as four experiments (i) Biopriming of rhizome bits using chitosan (ii) Effect of different modes and frequency of application of chitosan (iii) Effect of chitosan application on beneficial soil microflora and (iv) Effect of chitosan application on expression profile of curcumin synthase gene. All the experiments were tried in two varieties viz., Sobha and Sona. In the first experiment, single bud rhizome bits were treated with different concentrations of chitosan for specified periods. The experiment was laid out in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three replications. Each replication consist of 25 rhizome bits. The treatments included, T1: CTS 1 g L-1 for 30 min, T2: CTS 1 g L-1 for 1 h, T3: CTS 2 g L-1 for 30 min, T4: CTS 2 g L-1 for 1 h, T5: CTS 4 g L- 1 for 30 min, T6: CTS 4 g L-1 for 1 h and T7: Control (without priming). The treated rhizome bits were shade dried and sown in protrays and maintained for 45 days. The observations on growth parameters were recorded at 45 days after planting. The rhizome bits exposed to CTS 1 g L-1 for 1 h was observed to give better results in terms of growth parameters and vigour index in both the varieties. Chitosan treatment enhanced the shoot length of the plantlets by 58 % in Sobha and 83 % in Sona, over the control. The collar girth enhanced by 39 % and 19 % over the control in Sobha and Sona, respectively. However, the chitosan treatment did not significantly influence the days to sprouting, sprouting per cent and survival per cent in both the varieties. The plantlets obtained on priming of rhizome bits with CTS 1 g L-1 for 1 h was used to study the effect of different modes (foliar and soil application) and frequency of application of chitosan in the second experiment. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications. The foliar application treatments included, F1: CTS 1 g L-1 monthly, F2: CTS 2 g L-1 monthly, F3: CTS 3 g L- 1 bimonthly, F4: CTS 4 g L-1 bimonthly, F5: CTS 4 g L-1 trimonthly, F6: CTS 5 g L-1 trimonthly, Cp: Primed control and C: Unprimed control. Chitosan application significantly influenced growth, quality and yield parameters of turmeric over the control. Among the foliar treatments, monthly application of CTS 2 g L-1 (F2) was observed to give better results in terms of plant growth parameters viz., plant height, leaf area, shoot weight, rhizome spread and rhizome weight at 6 MAT. The cell membrane integrity and total chlorophyll content was observed to be significantly higher with monthly application of CTS 2 g L-1 (F2) in both the varieties. The activity of defense enzymes (peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase) were significantly higher in F2, in Sobha and Sona. F2 and F4 recorded low incidence of leaf blotch disease. Chitosan application significantly influenced the yield and yield attributing characters compared to untreated control. Trimonthly foliar application of CTS 4 g L-1(F5) and trimonthly foliar application of CTS 5 g L-1 (F6) recorded significantly higher dry yield per plot (1.93 kg) in variety Sobha, which was on par with all other chitosan foliar treatments. In variety Sona, bimonthly application of CTS 4 g L-1 (F4) recorded significantly higher dry yield per plot (2.21 kg) and on par with all other chitosan foliar treatments except F1. Foliar application of chitosan enhanced the dry yield in the range of 43 % to 69 % in Sobha and 56 % to 91 % in Sona over the control. Nutrient uptake also recorded a significantly higher value in F2 in both the varieties. In foliar spray treatment, F2, F4 and F6 recorded significantly higher volatile oil content in Sobha, while in Sona F2 and F4 recorded higher values. Oil content enhanced by 116 % to 137 % in Sobha and 144 % to 164 % in Sona over the control. F2 and F4 recorded significantly higher oleoresin content in both the varieties. Oleoresin content increased in the range of 76 % to 82 % in Sobha and 64 % to 72 % in Sona compared to control. F2 (6.63 %) and F4 (6.42 %) recorded higher curcumin content and enhancement ranged from 83 % to 89 % in Sobha. While in Sona, F2 recorded higher curcumin content (7.35 %) which recorded an enhancement of 54 % over the control. From the study it could be concluded that the best priming treatment of rhizome bits is with CTS 1 g L-1 for 1 h in terms of seedling growth and vigour index in both the varieties. All the chitosan treatments gave better performance in terms of yield over the control irrespective of mode of application in both the varieties. F2 and F4 gave better performance with respect to both yield and quality. Among these, the BC ratio was observed to be higher in F4 in both the varieties. Hence, F4 (bimonthly foliar application of CTS 4 g L-1) is selected as the best and economically feasible chitosan treatment for improving growth, yield and secondary metabolite production in turmeric. Chitosan application also improved the population of beneficial soil microflora, nitrogen fixing bacteria and phosphorus solubilising bacteria. Chitosan also enhanced the expression level of curcumin synthase gene.