1. KAUTIR (Kerala Agricultural University Theses Information and Retrieval)

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    Diversity spices richness of pollinators in cashew
    (Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Padannakkad, 2025-03-27) Aparna Krishnan; Nisha Lekshmi, V
    The study entitled "Diversity and Species Richness of Pollinators in Cashew" (November 2023–March 2024) conducted at the Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), Pilicode, investigated pollinator diversity, species richness, and foraging behaviour in cashew (Anacardium occidentale Linn.), a vital insect-pollinated cash crop. Observations were made on early (Nov–Dec), mid (Dec–Jan), and late (Feb Mar) flowering types through hourly monitoring of 10 inflorescences from 6:00 AM to 5:00 PM. Pollinator species were identified and analysed for abundance, foraging behaviour (peak foraging hours, foraging rate and foraging speed), and correlations with weather conditions. A bagging experiment was done to assess their role in fruit set. Nesting sites and bee pasturage were also documented. The study identified 12 pollinator species, including 11 hymenopterans from Apidae (Apis cerana indica Fabricius, Tetragonula sp., Ceratina hieroglyphica Smith, C. binghami Cockerell), Halictidae (Halictus sp. 1, Halictus sp. 2, Lasioglossum sp., Hoplonomia sp.), and Megachilidae (Megachile cephalotes Smith, M. lanata Fabricius, M. laticeps Smith), along with one dipteran (Mesembrius sp., Syrphidae). Halictidae had the highest distribution (49%). Species abundance varied with flowering type: Tetragonula sp. dominated early flowering (30.435%), A. c. indica Fabricius mid flowering (41.176%), and Lasioglossum sp. late flowering (46.296%). Overall, A. c. indica Fabricius was most abundant (21.85%). It also exhibited the highest foraging rate (15.4 flowers/trip), while Tetragonula sp. had the lowest (2.8 flowers/trip). Tetragonula sp. showed the highest foraging speed (6.19 sec/flower), while Hoplonomia sp. had the lowest (1.49 sec/flower). Peak activity of most pollinators were during the forenoon, aligning with flower anthesis. Diversity indices showed variations in species richness, diversity, and evenness by flowering type and time. Mid-season flowering types displayed the highest richness and diversity, while early types had greater evenness. Highest diversity was recorded between 11:00–12:00 AM. The overall species richness was 12, with high diversity indicated by Shannon-Weiner and Simpson indices. The Berger-Parker index suggested high evenness, with no single species dominating the pollinator population. 101 Weather significantly influenced pollinators. A. c. indica Fabricius and Tetragonula sp. were negatively correlated with maximum temperature and wind speed but positively with relative humidity. Tetragonula sp. also showed a negative correlation with bright sunshine. Halictus sp. 1 and Halictus sp. 2 positively correlated with relative humidity, with Halictus sp. 2 also negatively correlated with wind speed. Mesembrius sp. showed a negative correlation with wind speed, while Lasioglossum sp. positively correlated with maximum temperature, bright sunshine, and wind speed but negatively with relative humidity. Hoplonomia sp. was negatively correlated with relative humidity and positively with wind speed. The bagging experiment underscored essential role of pollinators in fruit set, as open-pollinated inflorescences achieved 7.17% fruit set, while bagged ones had none. This highlights the importance of pollinator conservation for enhancing cashew productivity and sustainability. Nesting sites for C. hieroglyphica Smith and C. binghami Cockerell were found in pruned cashew stumps, with stages separated by powdered wood. Weeds like Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Linn., Mimosa pudica Linn. and Rungia sp. in orchards attracted pollinators, offering crucial bee pasturage. This pioneering study at RARS, Pilicode, provides foundational insights into cashew pollinators, acknowledging variations in pollinator diversity across different locations. It underscores the critical role pollinators’ play in boosting cashew productivity and advocates against using chemical pesticides between 8:00 AM and 3:00 PM to avoid disrupting their activity. Preserving pollinator populations is vital for maintaining cashew production and addressing the increasing demand for cashew nuts.
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    Horticultural mineral oil for the management of tea mosquito bug Helopeltis antonii signoret in cashew
    (Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture , Padanakkad, 2024-08-30) Shilpa, T; Sreekumar, M
    An investigation entitled “Horticultural Mineral Oil for the management of tea mosquito bug Helopeltis antonii Signoret in Cashew” was conducted during 2022-2024 to evaluate the efficacy of horticultural mineral oil (HMO) for the management of tea mosquito bug in cashew. Laboratory experiments were conducted at the laboratory of Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Padannakkad. Phytotoxicity evaluation of different concentrations of HMO (T1: 2.0%, T2: 2.5%, T3: 3.0%, T4: 3.5%, T5:4.0%, T6:4.5%, T7:5.0%, T8: Control) in one year old cashew graft revealed that there was no phytotoxicity symptoms at the above concentrations and hence two higher concentrations viz., 5.0% and 4.5% were selected for laboratory bioassay. Evaluation of HMO against nymphs and adults of tea mosquito bug (TMB) under laboratory conditions showed that HMO at a concentration of 5.0% and 4.5% caused 64.76% and 48.57% mortality of TMB respectively, at 72 HAT. When HMO was evaluated against cashew aphids, at a concentration of 5.0% and 4.5% resulted in 85.17% and 81.64% mortality respectively, at 24 HAT in the laboratory study and 98.29% and 97.71% mortality respectively, at 8 HAT under field conditions. Since HMO at a concentration of 5.0% and 4.5% produced statistically similar results, 4.5% concentration was selected for field studies. Field evaluation of HMO was carried out at cashew estate, Cheemeni, Plantation corporation of Kerala under Randomized Block Design with nine treatments and three replications. The treatments were T1: HMO 4.5%, T2: HMO 4.5%+ λ cyhalothrin 5 EC 0.0015%, T3: λ cyhalothrin 5 EC 0.003%, T4: HMO 4.5% + Quinalphos 25 EC 0.025 %, T5: Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05 %, T6: HMO 4.5% + Mancozeb 75 WP 0.1%, T7: Mancozeb 75 WP 0.2%, T8: Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05 % + Mancozeb 75 WP 0.2% and T9: Control. Observations on mean damage score indicated that T2 was more effective in reducing the mean damage score during first and third spray application and it was on par with T3, T4, T5 and T8. The best treatment during second spray application was T4 which was on par with T2, T3, T5, T6 and T8. There was effective reduction in the mean population of TMB with T4 (1 DAT, 3 DAT, 5 DAT and 14 DAT in first spray, 3 DAT and 7 DAT in second spray) and T2 (7 DAT in first spray, 1 DAT and 7 DAT in second spray and 1DAT, 3 DAT and 5 DAT in third spray). HMO in combination with chemical insecticides resulted in effective control of TMB which ensure the application of lower doses of pesticides.
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    Marketing strategies for export of cashew in Kerala
    (Department of Rural Marketing Management, College of Co-operation, Banking and Management ,Vellanikkara, 2023-03-07) Haritha , Paul.; Ushadevi , K N
    Cashew (Anacardiumoccidentale L) often referred to as ‘wonder nut’ is one of the most valuable processed nuts traded on the global commodity markets and also an important cash crop. In 2021, the global cashew nut production was 39 lakh tonnes, led by Vietnam and India with a combined 39 percent of the world total (FAOSTAT, 2021). Vietnam (20%) is the largest producer of cashew and the major competitor for India (19%) in cashew export. Vietnam exports 54.24 percent of the total cashew traded in the world compared to India’s share of 16.32 percent (Rajesh, 2019). India is the secondlargest exporter of cashew in the world. India’s export of cashew was 67647 metric tonne valued at 3867.16 crore in 2021. The major markets for Indian cashew during 2021 were the UAE, Netherlands, Japan and USA (GoI). India is the largest importer of raw cashew nuts from African nations. The Cashew Export Promotion Council of India (CEPCI) is an agency to promote the export of cashews and acts as an intermediary between global importers and Indian exporters of cashew. Even though Kerala stands 5th position in the production of the cashew in India, it is ranked first in the processing and exporting followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (GoI, 2021). However, currently, there is a continuous decline in both the area and production of cashews in Kerala from 2013 onwards (Annual Report of CEPCI, 2020). The cashew processing industry in Kerala which has been facing lot of problems due to increased wage rate, trade union issues, continuous use of traditional methods of processing (labour intensive), stiff international competition, fluctuations in international markets etc. The cost of production in Kerala is too high compared to other states. It is around . 3400 for a bag in Kerala compared to 1000 to 1800 in other states. Besides in other states the industry was able to improve the productivity by mechanisation and automation processes as a result it was multiplied by two or three times. In Kerala due to high resistance from the labour force this could not be materialised. More over high dependence on imports and price fluctuation affected our cashew exports. Cashew export processing unit also face supply crunch amid low xiv domestic output. The above listed problems are serious export marketing problems faced by the cashew export industry. Though there are lot of literature related to the trend and pattern and problems of cashew exporters, the study related to export marketing strategies and the determinants of cashew exports is very limited. In this context a study of “Marketing strategies for export of cashew in Kerala” is highly imperative. The study will help to contribute to this research gap. Moreover, the findings of the study will help to identify the existing export strategies and the problems faced by cashew exporters which will in turn help to improve the existing status of cashew exports and find a solution to the problems of cashew exporters. The objectives of the study are: to analyse the trend and pattern in cashew exports, to analyse the export marketing strategies for export of cashew in Kerala, to identify the major determinants of cashew exports in Kerala and to examine the problems faced by the cashew exporters in Kerala. The study used both primary and secondary sources for the collection of data. Secondary data were collected for analysing the trend and pattern in cashew exports from authenticated sources like Cashew Export Promotion Council of India (CEPCI), Directorate of Cashew nut and Cocoa Development Board (DCCD), Department of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics (DGCIS), Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) and UN Trade Statistics. Primary data were collected from the cashew exporters of Kollam district in Kerala. A sample of 68 exporters who were continuously exporting cashew for the last five years were selected through stratified random sampling method. To analyse the trend and pattern in cashew exports, variables like area, production, productivity of cashew nuts in India and Kerala, price of raw cashew nuts in Kerala, country wise export and country-wise import during the period from 1990-91 to 2019-20 (30 years), and the variables like import of raw cashew nut to India and export of cashew kernel from India were measured. The collected data were analysed with Annual Growth Rate (AGR), xv Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR), Instability Index, Regression Analysis and Kinked Exponential Method. To analyse the export marketing strategies of cashew exporters in Kerala, export marketing mix strategies (product, packaging, pricing, payment, distribution and promotion) were taken and analysed by using percentage method. The major determinants of cashew exports were identified by using variables such as legal and political factors, socio-cultural, geographic, economic, export and import policy, international trade agreement, market logistics, competitive and cost factors. Indices method and factor analysis were used to identify the major determinants in cashew export. Internal and external factors were taken into account for identifying the problems of cashew exporters. Garrett ranking method was employed to examine the problems faced by the exporters in Kerala. The trend in production of cashew in India and Kerala state has witnessed a positive growth. The demand for cashew nuts is always increasing in India and also at the world level. On the other hand, in India, the cashew export sector witnessed a negative growth in terms of quantity/value of export throughout the study period due to high competition from other countries and the slashing of the export incentives. Compared to export, import of raw cashew nut showed an increasing trend, because the domestic production of cashew in India is not sufficient enough to fulfill the requirement of the international demand of cashew kernels. The study on pattern of cashew export showed that USA, Netherlands, Japan, UAE and UK were found the most stable markets for Indian cashew. Ivory Coast, Tanzania, Guinea Bissau, Benin and Ghana were found as the major importing countries of raw cashew nuts to India. Additionally, the price of raw cashew nuts in Kerala showed positive growth till 2018. The comparatively lower price of imported raw cashew nuts increased the imports of raw cashew nuts and reduced the demand for domestic raw cashew nuts which in turn resulted in a fall in the price of the domestic cashew after 2018. With respect to the export marketing strategies, the strategies related to product, price, distribution and promotion were analysed. All the exporters are following only the xvi strategies directed by CEPCI nomenclature. The major export product strategies followed by the exporters are offering certified cashew, specified grades of cashew, premium cashew, crispier cashew, level of infestation, minimum broken percent of cashew and high-quality cashew. All the exporters were following premium and competitive pricing as pricing strategies. Further they focus on the distribution strategies like reaching customers via their mail order / WhatsApp/ online modes, exporting through shipping mode and ensuring timely delivery. The promotion of the cashew is ensured by giving samples to new customers, attending trade fairs organised by CEPCI (Kaju India) and BSM (Business Sellers Meet), publishing advertisements in the CEPCI Directory; permitting visitors to the exporting company, sending brochures, photographs and price lists by postal/online mode to their clients. From the factor analysis, quality of the product, the language and communication of the product package, the proximity of the international buyers to India, food quality standards and location where cashew is processed were found as the major critical success factors of cashew export market. After examining the problems faced by the exporters of cashew it is found that they were facing both internal and external problems. Exporters were confronted with internal problems such as high processing costs, Continuous strike of labours in seaport, high wage rates of workers, outdated shelling methods and high penalty charges for the damage of the product during transit. Unattainable Standard Input Output Norms (SION), competition from other countries, the impact of import duty on raw cashew nuts, export incentives are low compared to competing countries and penalties for late clearance cargo were the major external problems faced by the cashew exporters in Kerala. The study put forward some suggestions to improve the cashew export sector in Kerala. Drum roasting method (labour intensive) of processing of raw cashew nuts to cashew kernels to be replaced with machineries in a phased manner without affecting the premium label of cashew kernels from Kerala. This will help to reduce the cost of processing and there by reduction in the price of cashew kernels in the export market. xvii Further the reduced price will attract the price sensitive customers in the international market and will help to boost up export position of India. Effective marketing strategies like featuring of “Indian Cashew” (like brands of almonds, pistachio) as a brand and promoting through films, or television programmes, offering free gift to regular importers at certain intervals etc may be implemented to increase the quantity of export of cashew kernels in the existing markets and to attract more countries to export from India. Abolishment of Merchandise Export from India Scheme (MEIS) negatively affected exporting firms of cashew kernels. Recently announced Remission of Duty and Taxes on Export Products (RODTEP) scheme has to be implemented at the earliest so as to help the exporters. Based on the study, it is suggested that, as state of Kerala is exporting only cashew kernels at present, if the exporters can explore the market of value added products of cashew which could help to improve their income generation and premier position in the export. In this regard, promotion and support from the cashew regulatory authorities is essential.
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    Evaluation of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) hybrids for yield and quality
    (Department of Plantation crops and spices, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Jintu Varghese; Jalaja S Menon
    The demand of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) for export and local consumption is increasing in the country and there is a gap of 7 lakh tonnes in the production to meet the requirement. Due to pressure on land, the possible way to increase production is to increase productivity by adopting improved varieties. Hybrid vigour was well exploited in cashew. Cashew Research Station, Madakkathara has developed many hybrids through hybridization programmes which are maintained in the farm. In the present study 19 hybrids of stabilized yield along with 11 cross parents and check variety Poornima were evaluated for yield and quality traits during the year 2020-2021. Qualitative and quantitative parameters including those of growth, inflorescence, apple, nut, yield and biochemical attributes revealed a spectacular array of variations among the tested genotypes. Among hybrid population, upright and compact canopy with intensive branching habit, yellowish red flush colour and pyramid shaped loose inflorescence were predominating. Early flowering from October was recorded in 13 cashew hybrids and four parents. Cluster bearing habit was observed in hybrids H03-113/1 (4.65 fruits), H03-55/10 (4.55 fruits) and H03- 53/9 (4.10 fruits). The apple weight varied from16.83 g (H03 55/10) to 137.49g (Priyanka). Nut weight of more than 10g was observed in hybrids H03-21/10, H03- 97/2, H03-36/8, H03-110/1, H03-52/6, H03-52/7, H03-52/5, HO3-95/4 and H03- 18/17 and these can be represented as bold nut hybrids. The average kernel weight varied from 1.62g (H03-55/10) to 4.19g (H03-95/4). Nut yield above 18 kg/tree was recorded in hybrids, H03-92/3 (20.2 kg), H03-52/5(21.5kg), H03-36/8(22.10 kg), H03-110/1(23.40 kg), H03-97/2 (24.50 kg), H03-21/10 (25.20 kg) and in parent, Amrutha (21.3kg) and check variety, Poornima (20.0 kg). In biochemical analysis, TSS ranged from 13.150Brix (H03-18/17) to 17.40Brix (H03-53/9). Vitamin C content ranged from 107.5 to 220.15mg/100ml. Lowest tannin content was shown by hybrid H03-55/11(0.085%), H03-92/3(0.09%) and H03-55/10(0.09%). The hybrids H03-57/4, H03-110/1, H03-113/1, H03-52/5 and xx H03-21/10 and parents, Dhana, Madakkathara-1, Vridhachalam-3, and K-22-1 were less susceptible to TMB. Nut yield per tree was found to possess significant positive correlation with nut weight, kernel weight, apple weight, number of bisexual flowers and shelling percentage. In the principal component analysis 85.92% of total variability was explained by the first three components with an eigen value greater than one. The characters like yield per plant, apple weight, shelling percentage, kernel weight, nut weight and bisexual flowers contributed more towards diversity. Eight hybrids viz., H03-21/10, H03-97/2, H03-36/8, H03-110/1, H03-52/6, H03-52/7, H03-52/5 and H03-95/4 were placed in the first quadrant along with check variety Poornima. Magnitude of heterosis was calculated for 19 hybrids over mid parent (relative heterosis), better parent (heterobeltiosis) and standard variety (standard heterosis). The above eight hybrids along with H03-18/17 exhibited better heterosis. The hybrids, H03-36/8, H03-97/2, H03-110/1, H03-21/10 and H03-52/5 which exhibited heterosis and nut weight above 10g, tree yield above 18kg, kernel weight above 2.5g and shelling per cent above 28 were selected as promising types. Hence these hybrids may be recommended for commercial cultivation. Further studies should be undertaken with different traits for exhaustive evaluation for commercialization. The hybrids H03-52/6, H03 -52/7, H03-95/4 and H03-18/17 having good yield and quality traits can be utilized for crop improvement programmes.
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    Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSl) formulation for the management of banana pseudostem weevil, odoiporus longicollis (Oliver)
    (Department of Agricutural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2020) Archa Nair, S; Fazil, M H
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    Product development from tender cashew nut
    (Department of post harvest Technology ,College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Sharon Jacob; Sobhana, A
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    Forecasting models for crop yield in cashew (anacahdium occident ale l.)
    (Department of statistics College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 1987) Usha Menon, R; George, K C
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    Effect of NPK on seed progeny and air layers in cashew ( Anacardium occidentale L. )
    (Department of agronomy, College of Agriculture Vellayani , Trivandrum, 1985) Harishu Kumar, P; Sreedharan, C
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    Nonlinear models for major crops of Kerala
    (Department of Agricultural Statistics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2007) Joshy, C G; Krishnan, S
    Nonlinear modelling techniques are the most suited tools for describing any time series phenomenon. Among the various nonlinear models in vogue monomolecular, logistic, gompertz and mixed-influence models find a prominent place. With this idea the agricultural scenario of Kerala was measured through the three important descriptors namely area, production and productivity of the major crops viz; coconut, rubber, paddy, pepper, tapioca, cashew and banana for all the districts and the state as such. Monomolecular model was the most apt model in most of the cases. The data sets were further explored based on the carrying capacity achieved by 2002-03 coupled with intrinsic growth rate. When none of the nonlinear models were found satisfactory either simple linear regression model or quadratic model was tried to explore the nature of trend. Coconut production was found to have reached its near maximum in all the districts where it was a major crop but the productivity figures gave a warning note for increasing the productivity. Rubber was found to be one of the most gifted crops, which was not devoid of proper attention. Even with this stature, production of rubber can be improved through uniform management practices. Usually nonlinear and quadratic models aptly describe a time series data on crop production. It is astonishing that simple linear regression model aptly described the paddy production in the state. The regressive value of the regression coefficients indicated that paddy production in the state is facing extinction.Paddy production in the state has at least to be protected. The lack of fit of most of the nonlinear models and even quadratic models to the data of pepper production indicate the various devastating hazards that the crop faced with. These contrasting features bring out the fact that pepper cultivation be not allowed to be toyed with. The area specific crops like cashew, cardamom, coffee and banana be made nonspecific through innovative technologies. A concerted effort with valid stresses specific to each crop will make the agricultural scenario bright.
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    Recycling of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) leaf litter and cashew apple through vermitechnology
    (Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Indu, V K; Jayasree Sankar, S