1. KAUTIR (Kerala Agricultural University Theses Information and Retrieval)
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Item Identification of yellow mite resistant lines in early segregating generation of chilli (Capsicum annuum L.)(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025-03-14) Mithun Vasudev; Asish, I EdakkalathurChilli (Capsicum annuum L.), is one of the most important vegetables as well as spice grown in tropical and subtropical regions. However, the productivity of chilli is adversely affected by insect complex especially aphids, thrips and mites. Chemical management of mites are often not encouraged due to negative consequences such as residue in harvested produce, pesticide resistance and various other environmental problems. Development of resistant varieties that utilize plant defence mechanisms is the sustainable solution. In this context, the present study entitled Identification of yellow mite resistant lines in early segregating generations of chilli was carried out during 2024. Previous study conducted at the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Vellanikkara had identified three moderately mite resistant chilli hybrids viz., Anugraha x 417, Anugraha x 445, and 451 x 445. F2 and F3 generations of above three crosses along with their parents served as the experimental material for the present study. Varieties viz., Anugraha and Ujwala were used as checks. F2 generation of the above three hybrids each with a population size of 200 plants were raised for evaluation. Hundred plants belonging to F2 generation of each cross were raised in the open field condition and the remaining 100 plants under the polyhouse. Parents involved in the above crosses were similar in qualitative characters such as hypocotyl colour, cotyledonous leaf colour, stem colour, nodal anthocyanin, leaf colour, leaf shape, flower position, corolla colour, anther lobe colour, filament colour, stigma exertion, calyx pigmentation, anthocyanin spots on fruits, fruit colour at intermediate stage, fruit shape, mature fruit colour, fruit blossom end appendage, fruit cross-section corrugation, fruit surface, seed colour and seed surface. So, there was no variation for these traits in the F2 generation. Corolla shape and fruit shape at the blossom end segregated in 9:7 ratio in the F2 generation revealing complementary gene interaction involving two genes. Segregating lines from the F2 populations were superior to checks and parental lines in terms of early flowering, early fruiting, fruit length, fruit girth, fruit weight, number of fruits per plant and yield per plant. F2 population raised in the open field condition had more variability than that under the polyhouse. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance as percentage of the mean were recorded for days to flowering, fruit girth, fruit weight, number of fruits per plant and yield per plant suggesting the predominance of additive gene action in inheritance of these traits. Under polyhouse conditions, days to flowering and days to fruiting as well as fruit length and girth under open field conditions exhibited leptokurtic distributions. Conversely, under open field conditions, days to flowering and days to fruiting along with fruit length and girth under polyhouse conditions exhibited platykurtic distributions. Most of the traits except days to flowering and days to fruiting, expressed positively skewed distribution revealing complementary gene action in the expression of those traits. Artificial release of mites was carried out at 30 days after transplanting (DAT) by leaf clipping and scoring of mite resistance was done according to Niles (1980), and Latha and Hanumanthraya (2018) at 45, 60 and 75 DAT. Percentage of leaves exhibiting downward curling symptoms (PLDC) ranged from 4.13 to 83.80 in the F2 generation, whereas it was in the range of 24.37 to 65.84 in the checks. Among the segregating generation, PLDC ranged from 9.01 to 80.79 under the polyhouse condition, whereas it was in the range of 4.13 to 83.80 in the open field. There was no immune genotype in the F2 generation. Based on the PLDC, there were 106 resistant, 281 moderately resistant, 201 susceptible, and five highly susceptible genotypes. Mite population was recorded from the resistant and moderately resistant genotypes at 75 DAT. Total number of eggs and active stages of mites ranged from zero to 13.25/cm2 on leaves of resistant genotypes under the polyhouse. Resistant and moderately resistant F2 plants were selected and forwarded to F3 generation as progeny rows. In the F3 generation, PLDC varied between 3.33 and 89.47. There were significant differences between the progeny rows with respect to PLDC. Based on the PLDC at 75 DAT, selection was carried out within and between the progeny rows. Out of 1260 genotypes in the F3 generation, 129 were resistant and 390 were moderately resistant at 75 DAT. Total number of mite eggs and active stages on resistant plants ranged from zero to 55.00/cm2 at 75 DAT. The resistant lines identified from this study could be used as new varieties or as parents in the hybridization programme after attaining homozygosity.Item Evaluation of Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes for yield, bacterial wilt and leaf curl virus incidence(Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture , Vellanikkara, 2024-05-21) Suvarna, K; Anitha, PChilli is one of the important vegetable spice cultivated worldwide and is commonly referred to as red pepper or hot pepper. It is a crucial commercial crop utilized as a vegetable, spice, condiment and culinary flavour enhancer. Chilli is mainly used as culinary supplement to add flavour, colour and pungency. Chilli is an abundant source of vitamin A and C. Capsaicin and its related compounds present in the placental tissue of its fruits is used in pain relieve balms and vapour rubs. The green fruits of chilli stand out as one of the most plentiful sources of antioxidants. Despite its considerable nutritional value, widespread acceptance among consumers and extensive genetic diversity, achieving optimal productivity in chilli production remains a challenge due to lack of high-yielding and disease-resistant varieties or hybrids. In addition, diseases like chilli leaf curl virus and bacterial wilt are the most two important diseases affecting chilli production. In this context, the current study was initiated with the objective of assessment of morphological traits of chilli genotypes for yield to identify high yielding ones and to simultaneously evaluate these genotypes against bacterial wilt and leaf curl virus incidence. The present study was conducted in the Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara during January 2023 to May 2023, using 31 chilli genotypes. The analysis of variance among the 31 genotypes of chilli revealed significant variations across all the traits. Genetic parameters such as Genotypic Coefficient of Variation (GCV), Phenotypic Coefficient of Variation (PCV), heritability and Genetic Advance (GA) were computed to assess the extent of variability. High GCV and PCV were exhibited by the characters like plant height, fruits per plant, average fresh fruit weight, average dry fruit weight, fruit length, fruit girth, pedicel- fruit ratio, yield per plant, bacterial wilt incidence, incidence of leaf curl virus, oleoresin content, capsaicin content, ascorbic acid content. The results indicated that the presence of a broad genetic base which will be useful in further selection. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance was reported in most of the morphological and quality characters indicating that these characters are under the influence of additive gene action. Therefore, it is feasible to apply direct selection for improving these traits. Correlation studies indicated that fruit yield per plant was significantly and positively correlated with plant height, primary branches per plant, fruits per plant, average fresh fruit weight, average dry fruit weight, fruit length, pedicel length, oleoresin content, capsaicin content and ascorbic acid content. Interrelationships among plant traits is crucial for enhancing both yield and quality. Hence, simultaneous selection for these characters would be advantageous for enhancing chilli yield. Path coefficient analysis among yield and its constituent traits indicated that the fruits per plant, average fresh fruit weight, days to harvest, pedicel length, fruit girth and plant height showed direct positive influence on yield. Path analysis reveals whether the correlation between yield-related traits and yield is having direct effect, in which case direct selection for improvement is possible. From the present study, based on the path coefficient and correlation results the genotypes CA 1, CA 3, CA 6 and Ujwala were recognized as promising or advantageous. The 31 chilli genotypes were categorized into eleven clusters using Mahalanobis D2 statistic. Cluster I contained the largest number of genotypes (21), followed by cluster II, cluster III, cluster IV, cluster V, cluster VI, cluster VII, cluster VIII, cluster IX, cluster X and cluster XI which had one genotype each. The intra-cluster distance was the highest in cluster I, while the inter-cluster distance was the greatest between cluster IV and cluster IX. Hence, selecting genotypes for hybridization or developing hybrids, genotypes from these two clusters should be prioritized. The selection index for chilli was established based on the characters including fruit yield per plant, fruits per plant, average fresh fruit weight, incidence of leaf curl virus and bacterial wilt incidence. Among the genotypes evaluated, CA 3, CA 6, CA 1 and Ujjwala were identified as the top performers. Notably, genotypes CA 3, CA 6 and CA 1 exhibited superior performance in terms of yield and leaf curl virus resistance when compared to Ujwala.Item Standardisation of operational procedures for pro-tray seedling production of vegetables(Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture , Vellanikkara, 2022-01-29) Arya, S; Dicto Jose ,MHealthy seedlings are the most important prerequisite for any vegetable crop to reach its full output potential. As a result, large-scale seedling production is becoming a profession and a commercial activity. Farmers used to generate seedlings at a reasonable cost in nursery beds in the past. However, due to some drawbacks like poor germination, higher pest and disease incidence, poor field establishment etc. in traditional nurseries, many progressive farmers and agriculture entrepreneurs have turned their attention to the commercial production of quality seedlings utilising seedling trays or pro-trays. In this background, the present study entitled ‘Standardisation of operational procedures for pro-tray seedling production of vegetables’ was undertaken with the objective of standardising best growing media, pre-sowing seed invigoration, and evaluating the effect of biofertilizer on pro-tray seedling production of vegetables. The present study was carried out at the Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara as three experiments during 2020-21. All three experiments were conducted in a Completely Randomized Design with three replications. In the first experiment seeds of tomato var. Anagha, chilli var. Anugraha, cucumber var. Heera, and okra var. Salkeerthi collected from the Department of Vegetable Science were sown in seventeen different media that were initially analysed for various physicochemical properties. The growth parameters of the seedlings raised in the poly house were assessed at the stage of commercial sale of each crop i.e., 15 days after sowing (DAS) in cucumber and okra and 30 DAS in chilli and tomato. The results showed that T13 (cocopeat: vermiculite: perlite - 1:1:1) and T17 recorded comparatively minimum bulk density, maximum water holding capacity and porosity which are desirable physical properties for good seedling growth. T17 (coir pith compost: vermiculite: perlite - 3:1:1) was found to be the best soil-less media for all four crops based on growth parameters and cost analysis. Among soil containing media T6 having soil and dried powdered cow dung in equal proportion and T10 having soil, cocopeat and dried cow dung exhibited a higher benefit cost ratio and was found to be on par with T17 for most of the growth parameters. Farmers do not have easy access to vermiculite and perlite, and they are costly. In this context, soil, cocopeat and dried powdered cow dung in equal proportion is found to be an alternate media comprising locally available inputs and affordable by the farmers. The best media from the first experiment was chosen for further trials. The second trial comprised of nine different seed treatments including various concentrations of KNO3 and Pseudomonas. Pre-sowing seed invigoration with 0.5% KNO3 in combination with 1% Pseudomonas was found to be highly effective in improving germination and growth parameters viz., germination percentage, plant height, root length, vigour index Ⅰ & Ⅱ and chlorophyll content of seedlings of tomato, chilli, cucumber and okra. This combination has the dual advantage of providing potassium and nitrogen to the seedlings and imparting resistance from diseases especially damping off. So, these treatments can be effectively utilized for producing healthy and vigorous vegetable seedlings. The third experiment included nine treatments in which different biofertilizers viz., PGPR Mix-1, Pseudomonas fluorescense, Trichoderma asperellum and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were inoculated in the media individually and in combination. Evaluation of the effect of biofertilizers showed that higher growth parameters like plant height, root length, leaf area, collar girth, vigour index Ⅰ and vigour index Ⅱ are comparatively higher in the treatment containing PGPR, AMF and along with either Pseudomonas or Trichoderma. In the above three experiments the best treatments were identified by ranking based on an index derived from principal component analysis. The characters viz., number of leaves, leaf area, collar girth, vigour index Ⅰ & Ⅱ and total chlorophyll content was used for performing PCA. The loadings of principal component having Eigen value more than one was taken as weightage. Using weightage, an index was derived and the treatments having higher index was ranked higher. The best media obtained include cocopeat: vermiculite: perlite (3:1:1) and soil: cocopeat: cow dung (1:1:1). A combination of 0.5% KNO3 and 1% Pseudomonas was the best seed invigoration treatment. Among different biofertilizers evaluated the combination of AMF, PGPR Mix-1 and Pseudomonas was found to be the best. Based on the insights of the above three trials, standard operational protocol for seedling production of tomato, chilli, cucumber and okra is generated for use by farmersItem Management of virus disease complex in chilli using the beneficial fungal root Endophyte Piriformospora indica(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Padannakkad, 2023-09-15) Meera Nair, V; Radhika, N SThe research work, “Management of virus disease complex in chilli using the beneficial fungal root endophyte Piriformospora indica” was undertaken in the Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Padannakkad during 2021- 2023 with the objective to explore the use of the beneficial fungal root endophyte Piriformospora indica for the management of chilli leaf curl virus complex infecting chilli.Infected plant samples were collected from the chilli plots in the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Padannakkad. The chilli variety Anugraha recorded higher disease incidence (D.I.-66 per cent) and vulnerability index (V.I.-15.66) than the local variety (D.I.-64 per cent and V. I. - 14.66 per cent). The major symptoms observed in the fields were leaf curling, puckering and swelling of veins. Molecular detection for the presence of associated viruses was done with begomovirus coat protein specific primers viz., Deng and AV/AC yielded amplicons of 520 bp and 575 bp respectively confirming its association with the disease. RT- PCR with Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) coat protein specific primers could not detect the presence of CMV. Chilli seeds of variety Vellayani Athulya were sown on P. indica mass-multiplied coir pith-cow dung mixture (1:1) amended with 2 per cent gram flour. Chlamyodspores of P. indica were observed in the root cortical region five days after co-cultivation (DAC). Seeds sown on P. indica mass multiplied medium germinated early (seven days) and completed 50 per cent germination within ten days compared with untreated seeds (ten days for germination and 17 days for 50 per cent germination). Pot culture experiments were conducted with seven treatments and eight replication in a completely randomized design (CRD). The virus was transmitted through wedge grafting at intervals of 2, 5, 10, and 15 days. Pre-colonization of P. indica followed by graft transmission of the virus after 15 days took 28 days for symptom expression while non-colonized, grafted plants took 13 days. Pre-colonized plants expressed low V.I. (25) against noncolonized, grafted plants (64) at 45 DAT. Colonization of P. indica (2 days) after graft transmission of the virus recorded a V.I. (36) at 45 DAT and took 15 days for symptom expression while non-colonized grafted plants recorded a V.I. (65) and took 12 days for symptom expression. PCR amplification using virus specific primers confirmed the transmission of the virus in all grafted treatments. Field study laid out in the Instructional Farm I, College of Agriculture, Padannakkkad with P. indica colonized and non-colonized chilli seedlings of variety Vellayani Athulya recorded per cent D.I. (74) and V.I. (14.66) while the non-primed plants recorded a D.I. (86) and V.I. (32.27) at 90 days after transplanting. Amplicons in agarose gel electrophoresis confirmed that the virus titre in P. indica colonized chilli plants was significantly lower compared to those in control. P. indica colonization recorded improved growth characteristics such as the number of leaves (72.53), leaf area (30.59 cm2) and number of branches (10.78) compared to the non-colonized plants. The days taken for flowering (18.22) was early and the number of fruits per plant increased (68.23) significantly in P. indica colonized plants. P.indica colonized plants recorded a yield of 683 g while non-colonized plants yielded 480.29 g per plant. Mites and mole crickets along with diseases like powdery mildew and fruit rot were also observed. Biochemical basis for P.indica conferred tolerance was estimated based on reactive oxygen species (ROS) and hydrogen peroxide production and the activity of defense related enzymes. The presence of ROS was assessed using nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT) and H2O2 by diaminobenzidine (DAB) staining techniques. Intense colour development was obtained in non-colonized plants inoculated with the virus. Plants pre and post-colonized with P. indica exhibited reduced stain intensity compared to plants containing only the virus with the pre-colonized plants showing better stain reduction than the post-colonized ones. The ROS scavenging enzymes include catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and phosphatase activity was higher in pre-colonized plants than in post-colonized plants. Plants infected only by the virus expressed a significant reduction in the activities of catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, phosphatase, and total soluble protein compared to pre-colonized plants at all time intervals. However, at the final harvest, this treatment exhibited an increase in total protein although still lower than pre-colonized plants. The present study revealed that P. indica is effective in managing chilli leaf curl disease both in controlled and open field condition by increasing the production of ROS scavenging enzymes. P. indica was found to improve the germination, growth and development of chilli plants of variety Vellayani Athulya. Gene expression studies in future can unravel the tripartite interaction between plant, virus and the endophyte in rendering tolerance to plants against virus and enhancing plant growth.Item Impact of seed priming on psychological and biochemical mechanisms under water stress condition in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.)(Department of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2023-12-16) Madamsetty Phani Kumar; Beena, RA study entitled “Impact of seed priming on physiological and biochemical mechanisms under water stress condition in chilli (Capsicum annuum L)” was undertaken with the objective assessment of the effect of seed priming on physiological and biochemical mechanisms and yield components under water stress condition in chilli. For both experiments I & II seeds of the chilli variety ‘Vellayani Anugraha’ were primed with 2.5% potassium nitrate (KNO3), 3% silicon dioxide (SiO2), and unprimed were soaked in distilled water for 24 hours and subjected to control and water stress levels at flowering stage. The first experiment was carried out in a factorial completely randomized design (FCRD) with the first factor being stress levels and the second-factor being priming agents using different solutions replicated thrice. The seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3, 3% SiO2, and unprimed seed treatments were sown in protrays. Seedlings were transplanted to pots 35 days after sowing (DAS), irrigation, and other cultural practices were followed according to KAU POP (package of practices). Water stress was induced by withholding irrigation for three days where the relative water content (RWC) of leaves reached 70% during the flower initiation stage. The results of the first experiment revealed that seeds primed with 3% SiO2 resulted in early flowering and first fruiting. Under water stress conditions, seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3 recorded significantly higher values for RWC (69%), cell membrane stability Index (CMSI) (42.16%), malonaldehyde (0.62 μmole ml-1), H2O2 (0.62 μmol g-1), trehalose (0.15 μmol g-1 FW), α-amylase activity (14.68 μmol maltose formed min-1 mL-1), specific leaf area (15.99 cm2 g-1) total chlorophyll content (TCC) (1.92 mg g-1), superoxide dismutase (SOD) (491.3 units mg-1 of protein), total soluble sugars (TSS) (1.53 mg/g) and total soluble protein (TSP) (1.017 mg g-1) however 3% SiO2 primed seeds recorded significantly higher values for total proline content (3.12 μmoles of proline g-1 of tissue). 136 Under control conditions, 2.5% KNO3 primed seeds recorded significantly high values for RWC (92%), trehalose (0.17 μmol g-1 FW), α-amylase activity (16.76 μmol maltose formed min-1 mL-1), specific leaf area (20.88 cm2 g-1) total chlorophyll content (TCC) (4.54 mg g-1), superoxide dismutase (SOD) (491.32 units mg-1 of protein), total soluble sugars (TSS) (3.22 mg g-1) and total soluble protein (TSP) (2.06 mg g-1) however 3% SiO2 primed seeds recorded significantly higher values for total proline content (1.31 μmoles of proline/g of tissue) and CMSI (91.0%). Under water stress conditions, capsaicin content was recorded higher in seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3 (144.6 μg g-1), and ascorbic acid was recorded the highest in seeds primed with 3% SiO2 (3.89 mg g-1). In contrast, in control, both capsaicin content (224.0 μg g-1) and ascorbic acid content (4.81 mg g-1) were recorded higher in seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3. Under water stress conditions, the yield components were higher in seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3. The plant height (60 cm), number of flowers plant-1 (24 number), number of fruits plant-1 (20 number), and fruit yield (44.29 g), were recorded as significantly higher in seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3. however, the seed yield (3.60 g) was recorded as significantly higher in seeds primed with 3% SiO2, and the number of flowers plant-1 (22 number) was found the highest in unprimed seeds. Whereas in control, 2.5% KNO3 primed seeds recorded significantly higher plant height (65.3 cm), fruit yield (90.4 g), number of fruits plant-1 (23.4), and 3% SiO2 primed seeds recorded significantly higher seed yield (4.03g). The second experiment was carried out in a factorial randomized block design (FRBD) with the first factor being stress levels and the second factor being priming using different solutions which were replicated thrice. the seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3, 3% SiO2, and unprimed seeds treatments were sown in protrays. Seedlings were transplanted to the field 35 days after sowing (DAS) and irrigation and other cultural practices were followed according to KAU POP. Water stress was induced by withholding irrigation for seven days where the (RWC) of leaves reached 70% during the flower initiation stage. During this period, physiological parameters were taken from the stress and control plants. The results revealed that seeds primed with 3% SiO2 recorded early flowering whereas seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3 recorded the first fruiting stage. Under water stress conditions, seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3 recorded significantly high values for RWC (68.16%), CMSI (46.66%), malonaldehyde (0.73 μmole ml-1), H2O2 (0.71 μmol g-1), trehalose (0.13 μmol g-1 FW), α-amylase activity (13.93 μmol maltose formed min-1 mL-1), Specific leaf area (13.47 cm2 g-1) TCC (1.93 mg g-1), SOD (520.03 units mg-1 of protein), TSS (1.55 mg g-1) and TSP (1.05 mg g-1) where 3% SiO2 primed seeds recorded significantly higher values for total proline content (3.12 μmoles of proline g-1 of tissue). For control conditions, 2.5% KNO3 primed seeds recorded significantly high values for (RWC) (79 %), trehalose (0.17 μmol g-1 FW), α-amylase activity (14.77 μmol maltose formed min-1 mL-1), Specific leaf area (18.47 cm2g-1) TCC (3.86 mg g-1), SOD (405.60 units mg-1 of protein), TSS (3.16 mg/g) and TSP (2.0 mg/g) however 3% SiO2 primed seeds recorded significantly higher values for total proline content (1.31 μmoles of proline/g of tissue) CMSI (91.16%).Under water stress conditions, capsaicin content was recorded higher in seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3 (90.5 μg g-1), and ascorbic acid was recorded the highest in seeds primed with 3% SiO2 (3.78 mg g-1). In control, capsaicin content (232.0 μg g-1) and ascorbic acid content (4.75 mg g-1) were recorded higher in seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3.Under water stress conditions, the yield components were recorded as higher in seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3 like plant height (55 cm), number of flowers plant-1 (22.8 number), number of fruits plant-1 (19 number), and the fruit yield (45.3 g), were recorded as significantly higher in seeds primed with 2.5% KNO3. The seed yield (3.16g) was recorded as significantly higher in seeds primed with 3% SiO2, under, the control condition, 2.5% KNO3 primed seeds recorded significantly higher plant height (60 cm), fruit yield (84.93 g), number of fruits plant-1 (22.4) and 3% SiO2 primed seeds recorded significantly higher seed yield (3.18 g). According to our results, seed priming with 2.5% KNO3 and 3% SiO2 enhanced the capacity of the plant to absorb water by preserving the least amount of cell damage and shielding the macromolecular structures from membrane damage, Thus, seed priming with 2.5% KNO3 and 3% SiO2 can be recommended.Item Integrated management module for sucking pest complex in chilli Capsicum annuum L.(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2023-09-05) Kiran, Thomas.; Thania, Sara VargheseItem Export performance and value chain analysis of chilli in India(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Akhil Reddy, M; Anil KuruvilaChilli and chilli products are the most important spices exported from India. The country is world's leading producer of chilli as well as exporter, accounting for almost half of the global export volume of chilli. The present study entitled “Export performance and value chain analysis of chilli in India," analysed the performance of chilli exports from India; assessed the export competitiveness measures and factors affecting chilli exports from India and undertook the value chain analysis of chilli in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. The export performance of Indian chilli was examined for the period from 1960 to 2019. The rate of growth in chilli exports from India has increased in the post-2001 period as compared to the pre-2001 period, while the instability of chilli exports has decreased in the post-2001 period. Among all the decomposed components of the changes in the average export value, the contribution of the changes in the mean export unit value of chilli was found to be highest. The commodity concentration of chilli exports from India was high in pre-2001 period and the exports became more diversified in the post-2001 period. The average value of the commodity concentration index for chilli was 76.46 for the overall period from 1986-87 to 2019-20. The exports of chilli from India became increasingly diversified to different countries and hence the Gini concentration indices have decreased over the years. Before 2001, the geographic concentration estimated using the Hirshman index was above 40 per cent, denoting the higher level of concentration and uneven distribution of export markets. The Markov chain analysis showed that in the post-WTO period, a greater number of stable markets for chilli exports from India were identified. China, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Pakistan, Brazil and Indonesia became major markets for Indian chilli exports in the post-WTO period. China was an unstable export market for Indian chilli in the pre-WTO period, but it became a stable market in the post-WTO period due to high demand for chilli in China. The increasing trend in the trade complementarity indices of India with partner countries in the trade of chilli after 2001 confirmed that India and its partner countries are becoming more complementary, which implied that India’s export pattern was matching with the import requirements of those countries. The estimated elasticity coefficients of the log-log model for finding out the determinants of Indian chilli exports showed that the production in India and the international price were statistically significant and having positive effects on export supply of Indian chilli, while an increase in the domestic prices and real exchange rate were found to result in a II decrease in the export of chilli from India. The Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) analysis showed that India and China were having high comparative advantage in the production and export of chilli. The estimated Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC), Effective Protection Coefficient (EPC), and Domestic Resource Cost Ratio (DRCR) values were found to be less than one. The Policy analysis Matrix (PAM) analysis under exportable hypotheses suggested that Indian chilli was a moderately competitive crop as an export commodity. The findings revealed that chilli was an efficient exportable item, demonstrating Indian chilli's international competitiveness. The analysis of demand for chilli in the value chain showed that the countries with greatest potential for export of chilli from India are China, United states of America, Thailand and Sri Lanka. The markets with greatest untapped potential for India’s chilli exports are USA, China and Spain. The highest number of NTMs on chilli exported from India were imposed by China, USA, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. The analysis of institutional set-up of chilli value chain has shown that the major institutions providing technical, extension and administrative supports in the chilli value chain are Spices Board, Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI), National Horticulture Board (NHB), Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), State Agricultural Marketing Board (SAMBs), Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Produce Market Committees (APMC), Regional Agricultural Research Stations (RARS), and Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK). The major input suppliers for chilli are fertilizer and pesticide shops owned by input dealers and majority of the farmers were growing the chilli variety “Teja”. The Supply Utilization Account (SUA) published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) was used to analyse the quantity flows of chilli along the value chain in India. In 2018-19, the production of chilli in India was 18,08,011 tonnes, out of which, 12,52,823 tonnes were used for consumption. The opening stock was 8,87,466 tonnes and the import and export quantities were 1,361 tonnes and 3,86,276 tonnes respectively. The closing stock in the country was 10,13,683 tonnes. The estimated weighted average of cost A incurred for chilli cultivation in the sample districts was computed as ₹3,33,459 per ha. The weighted average value of cost B and C for chilli cultivation in these districts were ₹3,98,014 per ha and ₹4,67,610 per ha respectively. The highest values for all the three costs were found in Guntur, whereas it was the least for Mahabubabad district. The major share of input-wise cost incurred for cultivation of chilli in all the districts under study was accounted by hired human labour and was followed byfamily labour. The weighted average of net returns estimated at cost A, B and C were ₹4,69,312 per III ha, ₹4,13,339 per ha and ₹3,44,097 per ha respectively. The B-C ratio for chilli cultivation at cost A varied between the highest value of 2.66 for Guntur and the lowest value of 2.09 for Mahabubabad. The B-C ratio for chilli cultivation at cost B was found to be highest (2.2) in Guntur, while it was lowest (1.83) in Mahabubabad. Similarly, B-C ratio at cost C varied between 1.90 in Guntur and 1.48 in Mahabubabad. The price spread in marketing of chilli was found to be highest in channel IV for dry chilli, while in the case of chilli powder, channel III had the highest price spread. The producer’s share in consumer’s rupee was highest (80.89 per cent) and the price spread was found to be the least (₹27.29/kg) in channel II for dry chilli, while for chilli powder the producer’s share in consumer’s rupee was highest (60.89 per cent) and the price spread was found to be the least (₹89.45/kg) in channel V. The marketing efficiency for dry chilli was found to be highest in channel I due to low marketing cost, and it was highest for chilli powder in channel V as the price paid by the consumer in this channel was the highest. The scarcity of labour was identified as the most important constraint in the production and marketing of chilli and high labour charges as well as price volatility were identified as the other important constraints. Lack of infrastructural facilities like storage and processing were identified as the most significant constraint faced by the intermediaries. The major constraint faced by chilli exporters was highly volatile international price, and in the case of processors, the lack of infrastructure was identified as the major constraint. As SPS measures were the major NTMs in International trade, the quality of Indian chilli should be ensured by encouraging the farmers to adopt Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), while the processors should be motivated to implement Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP). Development of proper warehousing facilities is essential for scientific storage of chilli as absence of proper storage facilities was reported as a major constraint. The chilli prices were highly volatile and hence the recommendation of Minimum Support Price (MSP) or possibility for making a price deficiency payment to the farmers based on a realistically estimated base price need to be explored. The dissemination of timely marketing intelligence is necessary to help the farmers to decide on the time of harvest, period of storage and place of sales. Indian chilli exports were found to be concentrated on few products and the country needs to explore the possibilities for value addition and product diversification which will help the farmers to move up in the value chain. India needs to develop trade policies to sustain as well as increase the share in stable export markets of chilli and must make efforts to enter non-traditional markets.Item Field tolerance of chilli varieties against sucking pest complex(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2022) Haritha, N K; Vijayasree, VItem Standardisation of operational procedures for pro-tray seedling production of vegetables(Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2022) Arya, S; Dicto Jose, MHealthy seedlings are the most important prerequisite for any vegetable crop to reach its full output potential. As a result, large-scale seedling production is becoming a profession and a commercial activity. Farmers used to generate seedlings at a reasonable cost in nursery beds in the past. However, due to some drawbacks like poor germination, higher pest and disease incidence, poor field establishment etc. in traditional nurseries, many progressive farmers and agriculture entrepreneurs have turned their attention to the commercial production of quality seedlings utilising seedling trays or pro-trays. In this background, the present study entitled ‘Standardisation of operational procedures for pro-tray seedling production of vegetables’ was undertaken with the objective of standardising best growing media, pre-sowing seed invigoration, and evaluating the effect of biofertilizer on pro-tray seedling production of vegetables. The present study was carried out at the Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara as three experiments during 2020-21. All three experiments were conducted in a Completely Randomized Design with three replications. In the first experiment seeds of tomato var. Anagha, chilli var. Anugraha, cucumber var. Heera, and okra var. Salkeerthi collected from the Department of Vegetable Science were sown in seventeen different media that were initially analysed for various physicochemical properties. The growth parameters of the seedlings raised in the poly house were assessed at the stage of commercial sale of each crop i.e., 15 days after sowing (DAS) in cucumber and okra and 30 DAS in chilli and tomato. The results showed that T13 (cocopeat: vermiculite: perlite - 1:1:1) and T17 recorded comparatively minimum bulk density, maximum water holding capacity and porosity which are desirable physical properties for good seedling growth. T17 (coir pith compost: vermiculite: perlite - 3:1:1) was found to be the best soil-less media for all four crops based on growth parameters and cost analysis. Among soil containing media T6 having soil and dried powdered cow dung in equal proportion and T10 having soil, cocopeat and dried cow dung exhibited a higher benefit cost ratio and was found to be on par with T17 for most of the growth parameters. Farmers do not have easy access to vermiculite and perlite, and they are costly. In this context, soil, cocopeat and dried powdered cow dung in equal proportion is found to be an alternate media comprising locally available inputs and affordable by the farmers. The best media from the first experiment was chosen for further trials. The second trial comprised of nine different seed treatments including various concentrations of KNO3 and Pseudomonas. Pre-sowing seed invigoration with 0.5% KNO3 in combination with 1% Pseudomonas was found to be highly effective in improving germination and growth parameters viz., germination percentage, plant height, root length, vigour index Ⅰ & Ⅱ and chlorophyll content of seedlings of tomato, chilli, cucumber and okra. This combination has the dual advantage of providing potassium and nitrogen to the seedlings and imparting resistance from diseases especially damping off. So, these treatments can be effectively utilized for producing healthy and vigorous vegetable seedlings. The third experiment included nine treatments in which different biofertilizers viz., PGPR Mix-1, Pseudomonas fluorescense, Trichoderma asperellum and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were inoculated in the media individually and in combination. Evaluation of the effect of biofertilizers showed that higher growth parameters like plant height, root length, leaf area, collar girth, vigour index Ⅰ and vigour index Ⅱ are comparatively higher in the treatment containing PGPR, AMF and along with either Pseudomonas or Trichoderma. In the above three experiments the best treatments were identified by ranking based on an index derived from principal component analysis. The characters viz., number of leaves, leaf area, collar girth, vigour index Ⅰ & Ⅱ and total chlorophyll content was used for performing PCA. The loadings of principal component having Eigen value more than one was taken as weightage. Using weightage, an index was derived and the treatments having higher index was ranked higher. The best media obtained include cocopeat: vermiculite: perlite (3:1:1) and soil: cocopeat: cow dung (1:1:1). A combination of 0.5% KNO3 and 1% Pseudomonas was the best seed invigoration treatment. Among different biofertilizers evaluated the combination of AMF, PGPR Mix-1 and Pseudomonas was found to be the best. Based on the insights of the above three trials, standard operational protocol for seedling production of tomato, chilli, cucumber and okra is generated for use by farmers.Item Evaluation of medicinal plant-based formulations for growth, yield and pest management in chilli (Capsicum annuum Linn.)(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Shafreena Shirin, P; Lissamma JosephPest management is one of the important components of crop management to mitigate economic losses of agricultural crops and commodities. The harmful effects of chemical pesticides on environment and health concern have caused a shift to adapt various ecofriendly ways of pest management. Therefore, botanical pesticides are gaining popularity because they are safe to use on crops produced for human consumption and recently there is a lucrative market among consumers willing to pay more for organically produced food. This positive trend has encouraged the research field to focus more on ecofriendly and effective pest management strategies. A study entitled “Evaluation of medicinal plant-based formulations for growth, yield and pest management in Chilli (Capsicum annuum Linn.)” was carried out at the Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara during the period from October 2020 to May 2021 with Chilli variety Anugraha as the test crop. Three medicinal plant based trial products (P1, P2, and P3) and their combinations (P4, P5 and P6), developed and screened at Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station (AMPRS), Odakkali were utilized for the study. P1 was developed from Vayambu (Acorus calamus), P2 from Manja Koova (Curcuma zedoaria), P3 from Erukku (Calotropis gigantea), P4 from Acorus calamus and Curcuma zedoaria, P5 from Curcuma zedoaria and Calotropis gigantea and P6 from Acorus calamus and Calotropis gigantea. Solid soap formulations of these three and their combination were evaluated at one and two per cent concentrations at ten days intervals along with an absolute control (T13- 1% soap solution without any botanicals) and positive control (T14-1% Neem garlic extract). The growth parameters like plant height (cm), leaf length (cm), breadth (cm),and days to 50 per cent flowering and fruiting, yield characters like fruit length (cm) and breadth (cm), fruit weight (g), number of fruits and fresh fruit yield per plant and qualitative characters like Vitamin C (mg 100g-1 ) and oleoresin content (%) were recorded. Statistical comparison of morphological and qualitative parameters under various treatments was done through one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using KAU GRAPES software. Effect of spraying the liquid formulations of medicinal plant based products and their combinations against sucking pests like thrips, whitefly and aphids during the experimental period (December, 2020 to May, 2021) were studied. Population density of sucking pests viz. thrips, white fly and aphids were recorded. Data on mean population of sucking pests were tested by analysis of covariance (ANOCOVA) using R studio software, taking population counts prior to the treatments application as covariate. The result obtained was subjected to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) and treatments were analysed. The plant height showed an increasing trend from one month after transplanting to five month after transplanting. The increment in plant height was reduced from three months onwards after attaining the reproductive stage. The maximum cumulative plant height of 61.05 cm was observed in T3 (Calotropis gigantea at 1%) among the treatments.The maximum cumulative leaf length of 5.82 cm was observed in T2 (Curcuma zedoariaat 1%). The maximum cumulative leaf breadth of 2.87cm was observed in T14 (Pest management as per Organic POP). Days to 50 per cent flowering for different treatments varied from 42.66 to 47.66 days. The minimum days to 50 per cent flowering recorded in T5- Curcuma zedoaria at 2 per cent and T6- Calotropis gigantea at 2 per cent. Days to 50 per cent fruiting for different treatments varied from 55 to 62.66 days. Treatment T9- Curcuma zedoaria and Calotropis gigantea at 1 per cent recorded minimum days to 50 per cent fruiting (55 days). Fruit length of chilli variety Anugraha under different treatments varied from 6.13 cm to 6.80cm. The maximum fruit length of 6.8 cm was recorded in T6 (Calotropis gigantea at 2%). Fruit breadth (cm) varied from 2.16 to 2.76 cm. The maximum fruit breadth of 2.76 cm was recorded in T5- Curcuma zedoaria at 2 per cent. Per fruit weight ranged from 1.22 to 1.63 g. The maximum per frit weight of 1.63 g was recorded in T3 (Calotropis gigantea at 1%).The number of fruits per plant ranged from 35.15 to 104.95 and the maximum number of fruits per plant (104.95) was recorded in T6- Calotropis gigantea at 2 per cent. The fresh fruit yield per plant ranged from 54.95 to 121.90 g. Treatment T6 (Calotropis gigantea at 2%) recorded the maximum fresh fruit yield per plant. Factors which influence the yield of the crop like maximum plant height, earliness (minimum days to 50 per cent flowering and fruiting), maximum fruit length, maximum number of fruits per plant were recorded in T6 (Calotropis gigantea at 2%). There was no significant difference for the qualitative characters like Vitamin C (mg 100g-1 ) and oleoresin content (%) with respect to the application of the medicinal plant based formulations. Efficacy of medicinal plant based formulations was studied against various sucking pests during the experimental period. Calotropis gigantea based pesticidal soap formulation showed comparatively good results against thrips population in chilli variety Anugraha under different treatments. Minimum population of whitefly was observed in the treatment T4- Acorus calamus at 2 per cent among various treatments. Acorus calamus based formulation also showed good results with lower pest load against aphids. In general, over all disease incidence in the treatment plot was negligible during the experimental period and Calotropis and Acorus based formulations were showed comparatively good performance in the aspects of growth, yield and pest management in chilli variety Anugraha.