1. KAUTIR (Kerala Agricultural University Theses Information and Retrieval)

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    Vegetative malformation in Malabar Tamarind [Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N Robson]
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2026) Aswathy Suresh; Vikram, H C
    Malabar tamarind [Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N. Robson] is a multipurpose tree belonging to the Clusiaceae family and is native to the Western Ghats of India. The species has attained commercial importance due to the presence of Hydroxycitric Acid in its fruit rind, which exhibits anti-obesity properties and is also valued for its antioxidant activity attributed to polyphenols, anthocyanins, and garcinol. In Kerala, the fruit rind, locally referred to as kudampuli, is utilized as a condiment to impart a distinctive sour flavour to traditional cuisine. Previous studies on Malabar tamarind have primarily focused on its taxonomic diversity and phytochemical composition. However, limited research has addressed vegetative malformation, a disorder characterized by stunted leaves, loss of apical dominance, formation of scaly leaf shootlets, shortened internodes, and hypertrophied vegetative buds. These symptoms closely resemble those observed in mango malformation, a condition that substantially reduces flowering and fruit yield. Despite this similar resemblance, comprehensive information regarding the etiology of vegetative malformation in Malabar tamarind is lacking. The present study entitled “Vegetative malformation in Malabar tamarind [Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) N. Robson]”, aims to elucidate the physiological, biochemical, and nutritional factors associated with this disorder. The research work was carriedout at the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, during 2023-2025.The study utilized genetic resources of Malabar tamarind conserved at ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Regional Station, Vellanikkara, and Regional Agricultural Research Station, Kumarakom, Kerala Agricultural University, in addition to germplasm obtained through purposive sampling. A comprehensive survey of 352 genotypes across three locations in the first experiment revealed varying levels of malformation incidence. The genotypes conserved at the Regional Agricultural Research Station in Kumarakom exhibited the highest rate of malformation, followed by those conserved at the ICAR-NBPGR, Regional Station, Vellanikkara, whereas the Garcinia block, Department of Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara showed a minimal incidence. Based on symptoms, trees were graded on a scale of 0-5. Eleven accessions, comprising ten malformed and one healthy genotype, were selected for detailed monthly observations from January to September 2025. Analysis of weather parameters revealed significant variations between environmental factors and malformation progression, as well as vegetative parameters. Total sunshine hours showed a significant and negative correlation with malformation incidence (r = -0.854), while relative humidity (r = 0.752) and rainfall (r = 0.703) also exhibited significant and positive correlations. Maximum temperature (r = -0.472) and minimum temperature (r = -0.514) were negatively correlated. Vegetative parameters, such as leaf length, leaf width, petiole length, internodal length, and leaf area, exhibited significant and positive correlations with relative humidity (r = 0.885 to 0.938) and rainfall (r = 0.681 to 0.909), and significant and negative correlations with total sunshine hours (r = -0.583 to -0.880). The nutrient analysis evaluated the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur in healthy and malformed tissues across four seasons. Significant interaction effects between season and tissue type were identified. Healthy tissues consist of higher levels of nitrogen (1.33%), calcium (1.10%), magnesium (0.30%), and sulphur (0.32%) compared to malformed tissues. In contrast, malformed tissues exhibited elevated potassium (0.51%), while phosphorus levels remained similar between tissue types. Nitrogen concentrations were highest during the post-monsoon and monsoon seasons (1.26%). Phosphorus (0.18%) and potassium (0.52%) peaked in winter. Calcium reached its maximum during the monsoon (1.56%), and magnesium was most abundant in summer (0.29%). Malformed tissues had significantly greater protein content (11.62%) than healthy tissues (6.36%), with the highest value observed in winter (17.62%). Ascorbic acid concentrations were significantly higher in healthy tissues (257.42 mg 100 g⁻¹) than in malformed tissues (224.42 mg 100 g⁻¹), with winter exhibiting the highest levels (264.89 mg 100 g⁻¹). Endogenous ethylene was substantially increased in malformed tissues (0.24 µL kg⁻¹ h⁻¹) compared to healthy tissues (0.18 µL kg⁻¹ h⁻¹), supporting the stress ethylene hypothesis. Auxin content was significantly reduced in malformed tissues (1790.24 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹) relative to healthy tissues (2212.38 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹), with the highest auxin levels recorded post-monsoon (3078.46 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹) and the lowest during the monsoon (1285.58 µg g⁻¹ h⁻¹). Light microscopy of hand-microtome sections indicated normal cellular morphology in both healthy and malformed tissues. Vegetative malformation in Malabar tamarind appears to be a multifactorial disorder influenced by environmental stress, nutritional deficiencies, and hormonal imbalances. A significant and positive correlation with monsoon conditions, combined with deficiencies of nitrogen, calcium, and magnesium, as well as elevated stress ethylene and reduced auxin levels in malformed tissues, suggests that the disorder develops under physiological stress. These findings offer comprehensive insights into the etiology of vegetative malformation and provide a base for integrated management strategies. Further, research into pathological mechanisms, soil rhizosphere dynamics, and hormonal regulation may help identify the precise causes of these conditions. Additionally, screening and characterizing resistant genotypes will support breeding programmes aimed at developing malformation-tolerant cultivars and conserving genetic resources, thereby promoting the sustainable production of this economically important crop.
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    Growth and development of rhizomes in small cardamom [Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton]
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, 2025) Devika, M P.; Nimisha Mathews; Reji Rani, O P.
    The thesis work entitled “Growth and development of rhizomes in small cardamom [Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton] types” was conducted at Cardamom Research Station, Pampadumpara, Idukki during 2023 to 2025. The study aimed at identification of variations in growth and development of rhizomes as well as rhizomatization behaviour of cultivated small cardamom types in the high ranges of Idukki. The present study was conducted through two experiments to assess the growth and development of rhizomes in small cardamom types at monthly interval for period of one year. The first experiment involved plants raised from suckers, while the second focused on those raised from seedlings. Completely Randomised Design (CRD) consisting of 3 treatments (cultivated types) with 5 replications each were followed. The three treatments were T1 (Malabar), T2 (Vazhukka) and T3 (Mysore). The growth parameters, physiological parameters, qualitative as well as quantitative characters of rhizomes and rhizome and root anatomy were recorded and analysed statistically. Significant cultivar-wise differences were observed. For growth parameters, In sucker raised plants, T3 (Mysore) recorded the highest mother tiller height (190.56 cm at 3 MAP) subsequent senescence caused a gradual decline in height. T3 (Mysore) recorded the highest tiller thickness (3.04 cm at 5 MAP) in sucker propagated plants, 2.75 cm at 12 MAP in seedling raised plants. In physiological parameters study, T3 (Mysore) exhibited significantly higher dry matter content of leaves at 12 MAP in suckers (59.40 g) and T2 (Vazhukka) in seedlings (40.03 g). T3 (Mysore) exhibited significantly higher dry matter content of pseudostem at most of the observation stages in both sucker (322.99 g) as well as seedling raised plants (69.85 g). T3 (Mysore) exhibited significantly higher dry matter content of pseudostem at most of the observation stages in both sucker (322.99 g) as well as seedling raised plants (69.85 g). 150 In sucker-propagated small cardamom, the plant base colour remained relatively stable over the 12-month period. T1 (Malabar) exhibited a consistent medium purple pink (N66B), T2 (Vazhukka) showed dominant shades of medium brown green (146C) and medium blue pink (N66D), while T3 (Mysore) featured medium green (140B), light blue pink (69A), and medium blue pink (68C). In seedling-raised plants, the base colour across all types was initially medium green (144A, 140B) from 1 to 4 MAP, transitioning to medium purple pink (N66B) and medium blue pink (N66D) from 5 MAP onward. Rhizome shape in sucker-propagated small cardamom plants showed distinct cultivar-specific patterns: T1 (Malabar) maintained a straight form throughout, T2 (Vazhukka) consistently displayed a curved shape, while T3 (Mysore) exhibited both straight and curved forms. In seedling-propagated plants, T1 retained straight rhizomes, T2 shifted from straight to curved over time, and T3 showed a consistent mix of both shapes. Rhizome skin and flesh colours varied dynamically over the 12-month period in both propagation methods. Skin colour transitioned from lighter yellow-green (154D) to darker green-brown shades (152D, 153D), while flesh colour shifted from light green (145C) to light yellow (150D). Surface texture in sucker-grown plants remained rough throughout, except in newly emerging finger rhizomes, whereas in seedlings, the texture gradually changed from smooth to rough over time. In quantitative rhizome characters, significant difference were observed at early (1-4 MAP), mid (5-8 MAP) and late (9-12 MAP) stages of observation. In sucker-propagated plants, T3 (Mysore) recorded the highest rhizome length during early to mid growth stages (9.24–10.30 cm), while in seedlings, it declined to 2.56–6.74 cm at later stages. T2 (Vazhukka) consistently showed greater rhizome width in suckers (23.17–39.20 mm), while in seedlings, significant differences were noted only at the mid stage. Finger rhizomes in suckers showed a steady node increase, with T2 (Vazhukka) highest (3.00–14.00), followed by T3 (Mysore) (4.80–12.40) and T1 (Malabar) (2.80–12.75). In seedlings, nodes appeared after 3 MAP; T1 (Malabar) had the highest count (1.90–9.40), followed by T2 (2.57–9.40) and T3 151 (2.40–8.63), with no significant differences. Internodes in seedlings increased steadily, with T3 leading (2.60–9.20), followed by T2 (2.20–9.60) and T1 (2.40–8.80). In suckers, internodes rose progressively with T2 (Vazhukka) showing significantly higher mid-stage values (2.40–13.00), followed by T3 (4.00–11.40) and T1 (2.20–11.75). In seedlings, internodes appeared post 3 MAP with no significant variation; T1 (1.50–8.40) led, followed by T2 (1.97–8.40) and T3 (1.80–7.83). T3 (Mysore) seedlings had the longest roots by 12 MAP (6.12–39.07 cm), followed by T1 (6.06–34.27 cm) and T2 (5.73–33.59 cm). In sucker-raised plants, root width was highest in T2 (3.70–7.69 mm), followed by T3 (3.60–7.35 mm). In seedlings, T2 (1.75–4.98 mm) and T3 (1.76–4.89 mm) showed comparable higher widths, with significant variation only at 12 MAP. Fibrous root mat diameter was highest in sucker-grown T2 (24.37–70.16 cm) across early to mid stages. T1 (Malabar) exhibited significantly higher shoot emergence in suckers at later growth stages (1.40–12.80). The study revealed distinct patterns in rhizome growth, development, and behavior, along with associated morphological and anatomical traits, across the three major cultivars—Malabar, Mysore, and Vazhukka—under both seedling- and sucker-origin propagation. Notably, variations in rhizome dynamics were closely linked to differences in vegetative performance, emphasizing the influence of cultivar type on both below- and above-ground growth throughout the study period. Plants raised from suckers consistently exhibited earlier and more vigorous vegetative growth, stable rhizome pigmentation, and better mineral accumulation compared to seedling-derived plants. Among cultivars, T3 (Mysore) showed superior vegetative traits and higher biomass accumulation; T2 (Vazhukka) displayed early bud initiation and delayed senescence; while T1 (Malabar) produced more tillers in sucker-propagated plants. Both Mysore and Vazhukka demonstrated strong potential for rhizome improvement. 152 Anatomically, all cultivars exhibited typical monocotyledonous structures closely resembling ginger, with no significant differences among them, reflecting structural consistency within the Zingiberaceae family. Rhizome traits showed progressive improvement across treatments and proved to be reliable indicators for selection, characterization, and crop improvement. These findings support the development of a standardized rhizome descriptor by integrating rhizome-specific traits into the existing cardamom descriptor framework, thereby enhancing cultivar identification accuracy, facilitating effective germplasm management, and supporting Distinctness, Uniformity, and Stability (DUS) testing.
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    Characterization of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Presl.) Accessions
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2024-03-05) Muhammed Musthafa, T M; Vikram, H C
    Cinnamon assumes considerable importance among the perennial spices of the world as one of the most extensively used spices in the food and beverage industries. The commercial form of cinnamon is derived from the dried inner bark of the Cinnamomum verum Presl., a member of the Lauraceae family. Sri Lanka has a unique identity I producing the world’s finest quality cinnamon. In India, Meghalaya is the primary producer, though Meghalaya predominantly contributes tejpat (Cinnamomum tamala Th. Nees & Eberm) Kerala ranks sixth in the contribution of true cinnamon, making up 0.17 per cent of the total national production. The present study entitled “Characterization of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Presl.) accessions” aims to systematically examine the morpho-biochemical characteristics and evaluate the yield of cinnamon accessions grown in the high-altitude region (AEU 21) of Kerala. The study was based on cinnamon accessions of seedling origin conserved as ex-situ at the Regional Agricultural Research Station, Amabalavayal. These accessions aged about 25 years were collected from various cinnamon-growing regions and maintained through regular coppicing. A single tree represents each accession. The morphological characterization of 21 qualitative and 16 quantitative characters from the selected accessions were recorded. In the biochemical characterization, volatile oil and oleoresin from dried bark and fresh leaves from all fifty accessions were analysed. Chemical profiling of bark volatile oil was performed for superior cinnamon accessions. A modified minimal descriptor for cinnamon with a set of 21 qualitative parameters as well as descriptor states for each character was developed as the first step of the study, referring to the previous work (Krishnamoorthy et al., 1996, Azad et al., 2019 and Liyanage et al., 2020). The developed minimal descriptor for cinnamon was further subjected to the characterization of cinnamon accessions. A wide variability was further subjected to the characterization of cinnamon accessions. A wide variability was observed for 13 out of 21 qualitative characters. The study revealed that, 7 out of 11 leaf characters; 3 out of inflorescence and floral characters; all four bark characters showed variability in the cinnamon accessions. However, no variation was observed in the fruit characters. Overall, eight qualitative characters were noted as non-variable characters; hence, these were not considered for further analysis. Based on the 13 qualitative variables, accessions were delineated into four discernible clusters at a scale height nine. In the present study, considerable variation was observed among the cinnamon accessions for most of the quantitative characters. The maximum coefficient of variation was observed for inflorescence length (41.72%). Quantitative characters, viz., number of shoots per stump and dry weight of quill, were found to record more than 30 per cent of coefficient of variation. Characters recorded more than 20 per cent coefficient of variation were fresh weight of quill, leaf area, dried bark thickness, plant height, leaf oleoresin and bark volatile oil. The quill dry weight varied among the accessions and ranged from 26.50 g (Acc.20) to 103.00 g (Acc.34) per coppice. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) distinguished the distribution of quantitative characteristics into two dimensions. The first two principal axes (Dim.1 and dim. 2) explained 49.40 per cent of the total cumulative percentage of variance. The contents of volatile oil (0.35 to 1.10%; 0.5 to 2.05%) and oleoresin (7.30 to 19.40%;1.65 to 7.75%) differed significantly in both bark and leaves of cinnamon accessions, respectively. The association study through Pearson’s correlation coefficient method revealed that the fresh weight of the quill was found to have a positive and significant correlation with the dry weight of the quill, plant height, and mean firth of the coppice. Meanwhile, dry weight of the quill was found to be positive and significant with the fresh weight of the quill, plant height, bark recovery, and mean girth of the coppice. Fifty selected cinnamon accessions were ranked based on the four key yield and quality parameters namely, number of shoots per stump, bark recovery, dry bark yield, and bark volatile oil, which have a direct effect on economic importance. Subsequently, five cinnamon accessions, viz., Acc. 12, Acc. 28, Acc. 34, Acc. 39, and Acc. 56, were identified as superior performing accessions and further subjected to chemical profiling using the GC-MS technique. About fifteen constituents were identified through the analysis of bark volatiles using GC-MS. Cinnamaldehyde was a prime constituent present in cinnamon bark oil. Of the five accessions, cinnamaldehyde was present in four, and content ranged from 27.77 (Acc.28) to 40.32 (Acc.56) per cent. The Acc. 12 was dominated by linalool (34.35%). The cinnamyl acetate was predominant in all five accessions. The PCA revealed the distribution of biochemical constituents among the different principal components. Which was mainly focused on the first two principal axes (Dim. 1 and Dim. 2, constituting 86.50 per cent of the total cumulative percentage of variance. From the study considerable variation was observed between the accessions for the morphological and biochemical characters. Based on yield, its components and other quality parameter, five promising accessions were identified. These accessions varied significantly for organic acides and had high cinnamaldehyde as well as unique in linalool content. These genotypes may be targeted for further genetic improvement or be utilized in selection method of breeding programme for developing high yielding cinnamon varieties which is also rich volatile constituents for high altitude tropical conditions.
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    Seed requirements for quality cashew sprout production
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, Vellanikkara, 2023-03-23) Suma Madhavan; Jalaja S Menon
    Cashew is an important dollar earning plantation crop grown for its delicious kernels. In Kerala, during harvest few nuts may escape collection and the hidden ones will germinate with the onset of rain. These germinated nuts called as cashew sprouts are traditional delicacy among rural people. Cashew Research Station, Madakkathara has commercialised the traditional technology of sprout production which open up an alternative market to cashew growers. Sprout and micro greens are now popular owing to its nutritive value. Commercialization of traditional technology of cashew sprout production needs systematic study on influence of seed nuts characteristics on quality of produce. In this context, the study was formulated to evaluate the response of seed nut size, pre-soaking treatments and varieties on production of quality cashew sprout. The cashew seed nuts available at cashew research station Madakkathara used as study material and the production was done in a specially designed germination chamber. The seed nut size had significant influence on sprouting behaviour and recovery of sprout. Small (below 5 g) and medium (5-7 g) sized nuts recorded lowest mean sprouting time (14.02 and 14. 52 respectively), days to sprout (12 and 12.33 respectively). But there was no significant difference in percent sprouting. Whereas cotyledon recovery (5.76g) and total weight of sprout (7.73g) were significantly high in sprout produced from large seed nut (above 7g). However, the total outturn of sprout from one kilogram of seed nuts was significantly high when small seed nut of below 5 g was used for sprout production (710.5g/kg). The study also elucidated that total outturn had significant negative correlation with seed size, mean sprouting time and days to sprout and significant positive correlation with percent sprouting and sprouting index. Influence of storage of seed nuts on sprouting has shown that there was no significant difference in percent sprouting and sprouting behaviour in seed nuts of current season harvest and seed nuts of previous season harvest stored under temperature 21 0C and relative humidity of 65 %. All seed nuts of previous season harvest stored under ambient condition failed to germinate even with various presoaking treatment. While evaluating the 14 pre-soaking treatments of seed nuts of current season on sprouting behaviour, it was observed that highest percent sprouting (87.5%) was observed in treatment T3 (soaking in water for 72 hours). The days to sprout (11.5 days), days to fifty percent sprouting (13.83days) and mean sprouting time (13.62 days) was significantly low in the same treatment. The seed nut of previous season harvest stored in storage chamber recorded the highest percent germination (80%) days to sprout (12.50 days), days to fifty percent sprouting (14.12 days) and mean sprouting time (13 days) in treatment T4 (soaking of nuts in water for 96 hours.).The pre-soaking has no significant difference in cotyledon characters, total weight of sprout and cotyledon recovery of sprout. The outturn of sprout from one kilogram of seed nut was significantly high when seed nut were pre-soaked in water for 72 hours. The harvested sprouts stored in aluminium laminated cover recorded the lowest physiological loss in weight. The overall acceptability of stored sprout was also significantly good when stored in aluminium laminated cover. The colour of the sprout retained when stored in aluminium laminated cover up to 4 days (150- medium yellow green – A). The viable bacterial count and fungal count was significantly low in sprout stored under aluminium laminated cover. Cashew varieties showed significant difference in sprouting behaviour and recovery of cashew sprout. The percent sprouting was significantly high in variety Anakkayam-1 (97%) and VRI-3 (96%). The total weight of sprout and cotyledon recovery recorded significantly high values in variety NRCC Selection-2 (8.67, 6.76 g respectively).The outturn of sprout from one kg of seed nut was significantly high in variety Anakkayam-1 (675 g/ kg). The outturn of variety Madakkathra-1 (588.4g/kg) was at par. The bio chemical qualities of sprout viz. total sugar (3.3 %), iron (18.65 mg/100g), protein (3.05g/100g) free amino acid (3.33g/100g) were significantly high in variety Anakkayam-1 .The tannin content was the lowest in variety Anakkayam-1 (2.82mg/100g) and Madakkathara-1 (3.70mg/100g).The organoleptic qualities of variety Anakkayam-1, was also preferred over other varieties.
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    Growth, yield and curcumin production in turmeric (curcuma longa L.) mediated by chitosan application
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2024-03-27) Shibana, S N.; Deepa, S Nair
    The research programme entitled “Growth, yield and curcumin production in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) mediated by chitosan application” was carried out in the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during 2021 to 2023 with an objective to evaluate the effect of different modes and frequency of application of chitosan (CTS) on plant growth, yield and secondary metabolite production in Curcuma longa. The present study was carried out as four experiments (i) Biopriming of rhizome bits using chitosan (ii) Effect of different modes and frequency of application of chitosan (iii) Effect of chitosan application on beneficial soil microflora and (iv) Effect of chitosan application on expression profile of curcumin synthase gene. All the experiments were tried in two varieties viz., Sobha and Sona. In the first experiment, single bud rhizome bits were treated with different concentrations of chitosan for specified periods. The experiment was laid out in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three replications. Each replication consist of 25 rhizome bits. The treatments included, T1: CTS 1 g L-1 for 30 min, T2: CTS 1 g L-1 for 1 h, T3: CTS 2 g L-1 for 30 min, T4: CTS 2 g L-1 for 1 h, T5: CTS 4 g L- 1 for 30 min, T6: CTS 4 g L-1 for 1 h and T7: Control (without priming). The treated rhizome bits were shade dried and sown in protrays and maintained for 45 days. The observations on growth parameters were recorded at 45 days after planting. The rhizome bits exposed to CTS 1 g L-1 for 1 h was observed to give better results in terms of growth parameters and vigour index in both the varieties. Chitosan treatment enhanced the shoot length of the plantlets by 58 % in Sobha and 83 % in Sona, over the control. The collar girth enhanced by 39 % and 19 % over the control in Sobha and Sona, respectively. However, the chitosan treatment did not significantly influence the days to sprouting, sprouting per cent and survival per cent in both the varieties. The plantlets obtained on priming of rhizome bits with CTS 1 g L-1 for 1 h was used to study the effect of different modes (foliar and soil application) and frequency of application of chitosan in the second experiment. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications. The foliar application treatments included, F1: CTS 1 g L-1 monthly, F2: CTS 2 g L-1 monthly, F3: CTS 3 g L- 1 bimonthly, F4: CTS 4 g L-1 bimonthly, F5: CTS 4 g L-1 trimonthly, F6: CTS 5 g L-1 trimonthly, Cp: Primed control and C: Unprimed control. Chitosan application significantly influenced growth, quality and yield parameters of turmeric over the control. Among the foliar treatments, monthly application of CTS 2 g L-1 (F2) was observed to give better results in terms of plant growth parameters viz., plant height, leaf area, shoot weight, rhizome spread and rhizome weight at 6 MAT. The cell membrane integrity and total chlorophyll content was observed to be significantly higher with monthly application of CTS 2 g L-1 (F2) in both the varieties. The activity of defense enzymes (peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase) were significantly higher in F2, in Sobha and Sona. F2 and F4 recorded low incidence of leaf blotch disease. Chitosan application significantly influenced the yield and yield attributing characters compared to untreated control. Trimonthly foliar application of CTS 4 g L-1(F5) and trimonthly foliar application of CTS 5 g L-1 (F6) recorded significantly higher dry yield per plot (1.93 kg) in variety Sobha, which was on par with all other chitosan foliar treatments. In variety Sona, bimonthly application of CTS 4 g L-1 (F4) recorded significantly higher dry yield per plot (2.21 kg) and on par with all other chitosan foliar treatments except F1. Foliar application of chitosan enhanced the dry yield in the range of 43 % to 69 % in Sobha and 56 % to 91 % in Sona over the control. Nutrient uptake also recorded a significantly higher value in F2 in both the varieties. In foliar spray treatment, F2, F4 and F6 recorded significantly higher volatile oil content in Sobha, while in Sona F2 and F4 recorded higher values. Oil content enhanced by 116 % to 137 % in Sobha and 144 % to 164 % in Sona over the control. F2 and F4 recorded significantly higher oleoresin content in both the varieties. Oleoresin content increased in the range of 76 % to 82 % in Sobha and 64 % to 72 % in Sona compared to control. F2 (6.63 %) and F4 (6.42 %) recorded higher curcumin content and enhancement ranged from 83 % to 89 % in Sobha. While in Sona, F2 recorded higher curcumin content (7.35 %) which recorded an enhancement of 54 % over the control. From the study it could be concluded that the best priming treatment of rhizome bits is with CTS 1 g L-1 for 1 h in terms of seedling growth and vigour index in both the varieties. All the chitosan treatments gave better performance in terms of yield over the control irrespective of mode of application in both the varieties. F2 and F4 gave better performance with respect to both yield and quality. Among these, the BC ratio was observed to be higher in F4 in both the varieties. Hence, F4 (bimonthly foliar application of CTS 4 g L-1) is selected as the best and economically feasible chitosan treatment for improving growth, yield and secondary metabolite production in turmeric. Chitosan application also improved the population of beneficial soil microflora, nitrogen fixing bacteria and phosphorus solubilising bacteria. Chitosan also enhanced the expression level of curcumin synthase gene.
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    Diversity analysis of Chittamruthu [Tinospora cordifolia (wild)] ecotypes of southern districts of Kerala
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2024) Revathy, U.S.; Sonia, N.S.
    The study titled "Diversity analysis of Chittamruthu [Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.)] ecotypes of Southern districts of Kerala" was conducted at the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2021-2023. The study aimed to assess morphological, phytochemical and genetic variation in Chittamruthu using SSR markers. Chittamruthu ecotypes, 27 nos. were identified from different locations in the ten distinct Agro-Ecological Units (AEUs) of Southern Kerala viz., AEU 1 (Chirayinkeezhu, Kottiyam, Kundara), AEU 3 (Suranad), AEU 4 (Thiruvalla, Ambalappuzha), AEU 5 (Mala), AEU 8 (Neyyattinkara, Kalliyoor, Kattakkada), AEU 9 (Ponkunnam, Mylom, Vembayam, Pala), AEU 12 (Vannapuram, Nanniyod, Vellanad), AEU 14 (Kulathuppuzha, Nemmara, Vellathooval, Nelliyambathi, Adimali, Vithura), AEU 16 (Kattappana, Pambadumpara, Shanthanpara) and AEU 17 (Kanthalloor). Chittamruthu stem is being used by the localites for curing kidney-related ailments in Chirayinkeezh, Thiruvananthapuram. Chittamruthu stem powder could improve digestion as opined by the localites in Kottiyam, Kollam. Amrithasatwa is a unique Chittamruthu preparation revealed by a traditional medicinal practitioner in Suranad, Kollam for treating acidity. In addition, local use of Chittamruthu for addressing health issues viz., menstrual irregularities, post-partum care, managing rheumatic fever, diabetes, joint pain, arthritis and dengue fever were documented. Chittamruthu ecotypes showed significant morphological variations in stem diameter, density of lenticels, petiole length, leaf length, leaf breadth and leaf area. Ecotype (T6) collected from Ambalappuzha (AEU 4) recorded the highest stem diameter (2.00 cm), petiole length (12.60 cm), leaf area (153.78 cm2), laminar length (12.37 cm) and laminar breadth (12.67 cm). The highest density of lenticels was observed in the ecotype (T14) obtained from Pala (AEU 9). Genetic variation among the 27 Chittamruthu ecotypes were assessed using ten SSR markers viz., TCTSSR 59, TCTSSR 104, TCTSSR 126, TCTSSR 92, TCTSSR 37, TCTSSR 18, TC 23, TC 8, TC 9, and TC 1. Among these primers, TCTSSR 104, TCTSSR 92, TC 23, TCTSSR 59, TCTSSR 126 and TC 1 exhibited polymorphism, while the remaining four were monomorphic. TCTSSR 104 recorded the highest Polymorphism Information Content (PIC) value (0.49). A dendrogram developed using NTSYS-pc software demarcated the 27 Chittamruthu ecotypes into 96 seven clusters at a similarity coefficient, 0.86. Cluster I comprised of 20 ecotypes, Cluster II to VI were comprised of one ecotype each and Cluster VII comprised of two ecotypes. A single representative ecotype from each cluster was used for phytochemical diversity analysis. Vellanad ecotype (AEU 12) recorded the highest total alkaloid (183.96 μg AE mg -1) and total flavonoid (162.62 μg QE mg-1) content. The highest total phenol content (55.21 μg GAE mg -1), total saponins (99.29 μg DE mg-1) and cardiac glycosides (42.09 μg DE mg -1) were recorded by Chirayinkeezhu (AEU 1), Kulathuppuzha (AEU 14) and Nemmara (AEU 14) ecotypes, respectively. The study revealed that 27 Chittamruthu ecotypes collected from ten distinct AEUs from the Southern districts of Kerala showed significant diversity in their morphological, molecular and phytochemical characteristics. Ambalappuzha ecotype (AEU 4) recorded superior morphological characteristics. Molecular diversity analysis using SSR markers had demarcated the 27 Chittamruthu ecotypes into seven genetically diverse clusters. Pharmacological properties of Chittamruthu are mainly attributed to alkaloids. In this study, Vellanad ecotype (AEU 12) is identified as potential alkaloid yielding Chittamruthu (183.96 μg AE mg -1).
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    Bio-elicitation of Ashwagandha (Withania Somnifera (L.) Dunal) for improved growth, yield and secondary metabolite production
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2024-10-10) Manisha Elza Jacob; KAU; Deepa, S Nair
    The study titled “Bio-elicitation of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal) for improved growth, yield and secondary metabolite production” was carried out in the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during December 2019 to September 2023 with the objective to study the effect of individual application of chitosan and the root endophytic fungus, Piriformospora indica and their combined application on plant growth, yield and secondary metabolite production in Withania somnifera. The study was carried out in W. somnifera as four experiments (i) Biopriming of seeds using chitosan, (ii) Bio-elicitation by foliar application of chitosan, (iii) Bio-elicitation using P. indica, and (iv) Bio-elicitation by combined application of chitosan and P. indica. The second experiment consisted of two parts, preparation of chitosan nanoparticles and foliar application of chitosan. In the first experiment, seeds of Ashwagandha were primed with fourteen treatments, comprising of four different concentrations of chitosan (0.5 mg mL-1, 1 mg mL-1, 2.5 mg mL-1, and 5 mg mL-1) for three different durations (2 h, 4 h and overnight), along with overnight hydropriming and control (without priming). Different germination and seedling growth parameters of the seeds and seedlings were recorded. The highest germination per cent (76.00) and survival per cent (73.33) were observed in the priming treatment chitosan 5 mg mL-1 for 4 h. This was on par with the treatment chitosan 5 mg mL-1 for 2 h (69.33) and hydropriming treatment (70.67) with respect to germination per cent. Hydropriming recorded the highest germination index (1.79) and the treatment chitosan 2.5 mg mL-1 for 2h recorded the highest allometric index (0.91). Respective results were on par with the priming treatment chitosan 5 mg mL-1 for 4 h. Hydropriming recorded the lowest mean germination time (8.83 days). The highest values of seedling vigour indices I (8890.00) and II (45.15) were also recorded in the treatment chitosan 5 mg mL-1 for 4 h. The duration of priming had a significant effect on seedling growth parameters. Overnight priming treatments with chitosan were found to have an inhibitory effect on germination and seedling growth parameters with values on par with or lower than that of the control. Based on the results, seed priming with chitosan 5 mg mL-1 for 4 h, was selected as the best priming treatment for further experiments in the study. The preparation of chitosan nanoparticles was carried out by ionotrophic gelation method by dropwise addition of tripolyphoshate (TPP) solution to chitosan solution, under stirring at room temperature. Eighteen treatments formed by three levels of chitosan (1 mg mL-1, 2 mg mL-1 and 3 mg mL-1), three levels of TPP (0.5 mg mL-1, 0.75 mg mL-1 and 1 mg mL-1) and two speeds of rotation (700 rpm and 800 rpm) were tried for preparing the nanoparticles. The absorption spectra of the resultant solutions were observed at eight different wavelengths, i.e., 200 nm, 220 nm, 240 nm, 260 nm, 280 nm, 300 nm, 320 nm and 340 nm. The factor combinations with chitosan 1 mg mL-1 and TPP 0.5 mg mL-1 at 700 rpm, chitosan 2 mg mL-1 and TPP 0.75 mg mL-1 at 700 rpm, and chitosan 3 mg mL-1 and TPP 1 mg mL-1 at 700 rpm had an absorption peak at 220 nm. These were further characterized for particle size and were observed to have mean particle sizes of 222.9 nm, 333.4 nm and 366.9 nm, respectively. As the particles formed by various chitosan - TPP combinations did not fall in the nanoscale range of less than 200 nm, the further experiments involving chitosan nanoparticles were carried out using commercially available chitosan nano particles of size 80 to 100 nm. In the experiment involving foliar application of chitosan, seeds primed with the best priming treatment selected (chitosan 5 mg mL-1 for 4 h) were sown in protrays and thirty-day old seedlings were transplanted to growbags. The eight treatments in this experiment consisted of chitosan and chitosan nanoparticles spray, each at three different concentrations (1 mg mL-1, 2.5 mg mL-1 and 5 mg mL-1). The primed and non-primed seeds (absolute control) without any foliar spray application served as the control treatments. The treatments were imposed as foliar spray at transplanting, 15, and 45 days after that. The treatment with chitosan 2.5 mg mL-1 was found to be the best in terms of parameters like plant height, number of leaves and leaf area, recording the values 123.67 cm, 178.83 leaves and 119.99 cm2 respectively, at harvest. The treatment with a higher concentration of chitosan nanoparticles (5 mg mL-1) recorded the lowest number of days to flowering from transplanting (30.67 days), and also a lesser number of days to fruitset from flowering (9.17 days). The highest number of branches (9.97) and flowering branches (8.15) at harvest were observed in the treatment, chitosan 1 mg mL-1. The treatment with the lowest concentration of chitosan nanoparticles (1 mg mL-1) recorded the lowest values in various growth parameters, viz., plant height, number of branches, number of flowering branches, leaf area and collar girth. With respect to biochemical parameters, the highest content of total proteins (7.12 mg g-1) and carbohydrates (22.41 mg 100 g-1) were observed in the treatment with chitosan nanoparticles 2.5 mg mL-1 at harvest. The treatment with chitosan 1 mg mL-1 recorded the highest peroxidase (32.35 U mg-1 protein), catalase (17.57 U mg-1 protein) and superoxide dismutase (1.68 U mg-1 protein) activities. Similar to growth parameters, chitosan 2.5 mg mL-1 recorded the highest leaf area index (25.75) and leaf area duration (1020.92 days). All the treatments involving chitosan as well as chitosan nanoparticles were observed to have significantly higher photosynthetic rate at harvest. The highest stomatal conductance (162.97 mmoles m-2 s-1) was observed in the treatment chitosan 1 mg mL-1, the highest proline content (44.03 μM g-1 tissue) was observed in the treatment chitosan nanoparticles 2.5 mg mL-1, and the highest cell membrane integrity (91.80 per cent) was observed in chitosan nanoparticles 5 mg mL-1 at harvest. This treatment also had the highest total chlorophyll content at harvest. The shoot weight was observed to be significantly higher in chitosan treatments over chitosan nanoparticles as well as the control treatments. However, with respect to the dry weight of shoot, the lowest concentration of chitosan nanoparticles (1 mg mL-1) was observed to be on par with chitosan foliar spray treatments. The treatments with chitosan nanoparticles were observed to give significantly higher berry weight and seed yield per plant over chitosan and control treatments. The root parameters, viz., root length, root diameter, root volume and root yield (fresh and dry) were also observed to be significantly higher in treatments with chitosan nanoparticles over that of chitosan and control treatments. Root being the officinal part of the plant, the secondary metabolite, withanolide content in it was recorded. The highest withanolide content was observed in the treatment chitosan 2.5 mg mL-1 (0.45 per cent), and was on par with the treatment chitosan 5 mg mL-1 (0.43 per cent). Withanolide yield per plant was the highest in the treatment chitosan nanoparticles 2.5 mg mL-1 (5.46 mg plant-1) which had 4.4 times increase in withanolide yield over control. This was on par with the treatment chitosan 5 mg mL-1 (4.99 mg plant-1) which had 3.9 times increase in withanolide yield over control. Among the foliar spray treatments, chitosan 5 mg mL-1 and chitosan nanoparticles 2.5 mg mL-1 were selected as the best two treatments in terms of higher withanolide yield, for proceeding to the combination trials. In the experiment involving application of P. indica, P. indica mycelium, culture filtrate and cell wall extract were applied to the plants raised from primed and non-primed seeds. The seedlings raised from the primed and non-primed seeds were transplanted at 30 days after sowing to growbags. P. indica mycelium was applied at transplanting; and P. indica culture filtrate and cell wall extract were applied as foliar spray at transplanting, 15 and 45 days after transplanting. With respect to growth parameters, the highest plant height (120.19 cm), number of flowering branches (7.25), leaf area (111.84 cm2) and collar girth (2.67 cm) were observed in the plants derived from primed seeds treated with P. indica mycelium. Significantly higher protein content and defense enzymes were observed in the plants raised from non-primed seeds treated with P. indica cell wall extract. Physiological parameters like leaf area index and leaf area duration were found to be the highest in the plants raised from primed seeds treated with P. indica cell wall extract (1.40 and 21.65 days) at harvest. The highest stomatal conductance (129.30 mmoles m-2 s-1), photosynthetic rate (26.60 μCO2 moles m-2 s-1), proline content (45.37 μM g-1 tissue) cell membrane integrity (70.06 per cent) and total chlorophyll content (2.44 mg g-1 fresh weight) were recorded in the plants raised from primed seeds treated with P. indica mycelium. Shoot weight per plant was found to be significantly higher in plants raised from both primed and non-primed seeds treated with P. indica mycelium. Number of berries per plant, berry weight and seed yield per plant were found to be significantly higher in plants raised from primed seeds treated with P. indica mycelium and culture filtrate. All the root parameters, root length, root diameter, root volume, root yield per plant (fresh and dry) were observed to be the highest in plants raised from primed seeds treated with P. indica mycelium. The withanolide content was observed to be significantly higher in the roots of plants raised from primed seeds treated with P. indica mycelium (0.35 per cent) and culture filtrate (0.37 per cent). The same treatments showed significantly higher withanolide yield of 4.05 mg (3.82 times increase over control) and 3.60 mg per plant (3.28 times increase over control), respectively. Thus, the plants raised from primed seeds treated with P. indica mycelium and culture filtrate were selected as the best two treatments in terms of higher withanolide yield, for proceeding to the combination trials. For the combined application of chitosan and P. indica, the best two treatments selected from the individual application of chitosan and P. indica were used for studying their combined effect on growth, yield and secondary metabolite production in W. somnifera. The highest plant height (91.86 cm), number of leaves (143.70), leaf length (17.01 cm), leaf breadth (9.48 cm), and leaf area (113.28 cm2) were observed in the combination treatment of chitosan 5 mg mL-1 and P. indica mycelium. The highest number of branches (8.25), flowering branches (7.60) and collar girth (2.42 cm) were observed in the combination treatment involving chitosan 5 mg mL-1 and P. indica culture filtrate. The same treatment recorded the highest protein content (8.45 mg g-1). The highest peroxidase activity (34.74 U mg-1 protein), catalase activity (14.67 U mg-1 protein) and superoxide dismutase activity (1.48 U mg-1) were observed in the treatment involving chitosan of 5 mg mL-1 and P. indica mycelium. The same treatment recorded the highest value with respect to physiological parameters, viz., leaf area index (19.53), leaf area duration (803.07 days), stomatal conductance (137.11 mmoles m-2 s-1), photosynthetic rate (33.73 μCO2 moles m-2 s-1) and total chlorophyll content (3.76 mg g-1 fresh weight). The highest proline content was recorded in the treatment involving chitosan nanoparticles 2.5 mg mL-1 and P. indica mycelium (34.22 μM g-1 tissue) and highest cell membrane integrity in the combination treatment of chitosan nanoparticles 2.5 mg mL-1 and P. indica culture filtrate (83.69 per cent). The shoot weight and all the root growth parameters, viz., root length, root diameter, root volume and root yield were found to be the highest in the combination treatment of chitosan 5 mg mL-1 and P. indica mycelium. The combination treatments involving chitosan nanoparticles 2.5 mg mL-1 and P. indica mycelium/culture filtrate had the highest number of berries, berry weight and seed yield per plant. Significantly higher withanolide content was observed in roots of the plants treated with chitosan 5 mg mL-1 and P. indica culture filtrate. Withanolide yield per plant was the highest in the treatment comprising chitosan nanoparticles 2.5 mg mL-1 and P. indica culture filtrate and was on par with the combination treatment of chitosan 5 mg mL-1 and P. indica mycelium/culture filtrate. In the study, it was observed that all the combination treatments gave better performance than the control in terms of root yield, withanolide content and withanolide yield per plant. The concentration of chitosan and exposure time of priming had a profound influence on seed germination and seedling growth parameters in W. somnifera. The bio-elicitors, chitosan/chitosan nanoparticles and P. indica when applied individually and in combination to chitosan primed seeds have been observed to enhance growth, yield and metabolite production in a dose dependent manner in W. somnifera.
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    Propagation and bioactivity studies in Ellotti (Pterospermum rubiginosum b. Heyne ex wight & arn.)
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture , Vellanikkara, 2024-09-11) Aparna, P M; KAU; Vikram, H C
    The study entitled “Propagation and bioactivity studies in Ellotti (Pterospermum rubiginosum B. Heyne ex Wight & Arn.)” was conducted at the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, KAU, Vellanikkara, and the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, KVASU, Pookode, Wayanad from 2018 to 2023. The study aimed to collect ethnobotanical information from tribal healers in Kerala, develop vegetative propagation protocols, and investigate the bioactivity of Pterospermum rubiginosum through antioxidant, antimicrobial, wound healing, and antihyperglycemic studies. From the account of tribal healers, the bark of Pterospermum rubiginosum is an effective remedy for the treatment of fractures. The tree's bark is effectively used by the ethnomedical practitioners of different tribes in Kerala like Kurichiyan, Kattunayakan, Muthuvan, Vetta Kuruman and Kanikkar. These experienced healers assert that majority of patients respond well to the treatment, approximately one in a hundred might exhibit allergic reactions or fail to respond altogether. It may take a week to three months for a broken bone to mend. For a fracture to heal, all factors like time taken for the patient to reach the healer, severity of the fracture, patient's age, calcium status in the body and other health conditions should be considered. In the vegetative propagation study conducted during June-July and September-October, maximum rooting was observed in the June-July months, with the highest rooting percentage of 4.53 per cent. Among the growth regulators, NAA 1000 ppm was found to be significantly superior in enchaining the rooting in both hardwood and semi-hardwood cuttings of Pterospermum rubiginosum at 120 days after planting. Biochemical analysis of bark and leaves of Pterospermum rubiginosum revealed the presence of phenols, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, saponins, sugars and carbohydrates with the bark showing higher values compared to the leaves. The gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) and high resolution -liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (HR-LCMS) analysis of ethanol extracts of bark and leaves revealed the presence of 22 major compounds in the bark extract and 32 major compounds in the leaf extract. The majority of the abundant compounds belong to flavonoid, phenol, alkaloid and saponin class of compounds like 6''-caffeoylisoorientin, kaempferol 3-O-β-Dgalactoside, 3-O-cis-coumaroylmaslinic acid, epigallocatechin and patientoside A. The bark extract exhibited higher antioxidant activity in 2,2-diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl hydrate (DPPH) radical scavenging assay, 2,2–azino–bis (3- ethylbenzothiozoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical scavenging assay (ABTS), reducing power assay, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay and total antioxidant activity compared to the leaf extract, and similar activity to that of leaf extract in nitric oxide scavenging assay. The ethanol extract of both bark and leaves of Pterospermum rubiginosum were ineffective against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli up to a concentration of 1000 μg/mL in Kirby-Bauer agar disc diffusion method. However, in modified resazurin microtiter plate assay, the ethanol extract of Pterospermum rubiginosum bark exhibited minimum inhibitory concentration of 500 μg/mL against Staphylococcus aureus, while the leaf extract showed inhibition against Escherichia coli at a minimum inhibitory concentration of 1750 μg/mL. The ethanol extract of Pterospermum rubiginosum bark was used for further in vitro studies as it showed superior biochemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties compared to leaf extract. The per cent mean cell viability of ethanol extract of Pterospermum rubiginosum bark in L929 mouse skin fibroblast cells was determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and resulted an effective concentration 50 (EC50) of 100.90 μg/mL. In scratch assay using L929 mouse skin fibroblast cells, gap closure was at a faster rate in positive control, followed by test drug and normal control. The in vitro test was followed by an in vivo wound healing study in Wistar rats. The per cent reduction in wound area on the 15th day of wound induction in Wistar rats was similar in Cipladine standard (89.77 ± 2.39) and test extracts group at 2.5 per cent (86.99 ± 1.17), 5.0 per cent (87.25 ± 1.91) and 10.0 per cent (85.99 ± 1.01), which were significantly higher than normal control group (78.54 ± 2.93). The presence of keratinocytes and incompletely formed hair follicles in histopathological observations of Cipladine standard and extract 2.5 per cent group suggested that the animals were in proliferative phase of wound healing whereas, incomplete epithelialization in extracts 5.0 per cent, 10.0 per cent and normal control led to the conclusion that the animals were in inflammatory phase of wound healing. In Wistar rats, further analysis using the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) revealed that glucose values were higher one hour after glucose administration and followed by a steady decrease after one hour. After three hours, the lowest glucose values were observed in glibenclamide standard and extract at 50 mg/kg body weight groups, whereas, normal control and higher concentration groups exhibited significantly higher glucose values. The study concludes that tribal healers effectively utilise Pterospermum rubiginosum bark for healing bone fractures, wound and sprains. The ethanol extract of Pterospermum rubiginosum bark and leaves exhibited antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. In vivo wound healing studies suggested that a lower concentration of extract at 2.5 per cent was effective in wound healing compared to higher concentrations, possibly due to the presence of compounds hindering the migration of proinflammatory cytokines to the wound site. Complete wound healing could have been observed if the duration of study was increased to a few more days. Another significant finding was the reduction in glucose level in Wistar rats after administration of extract at 50 mg/kg body weight, which indicated that Pterospermum rubiginosum has anti-hyperglycemic properties. Further in vivo wound healing studies could be carried out by using bark extract at lower concentrations or by isolation of compounds responsible for wound healing
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    Physico-chemical and nutritional analysis of seed and seed-butter of Garcinia spp.
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture , Vellanikkara, 2023-01-17) Urati , Mahesh; Vikram, H C
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    Physico-chemical and nutritional analysis of seed and seed-butter of Garcinia spp.
    (Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2023) Urati Mahesh; Vikram, H C
    The genus Garcinia belonging to the family Clusiaceae is an underutilized perennial tree found throughout the tropics of Asia and Africa. Garcinia species such as cambodge (Garcinia gummi-gutta) and kokum (Garcinia indica) are commercially exploited as condiments to flavour a range of food preparations. Cambodge is grown widely in the homestead of Kerala, whereas kokum is cultivated as a traditional homestead crop in the Konkan region of Maharashtra, Goa and coastal and southern interior parts of Karnataka. The economic part of both cambodge and kokum is dried fruit rind. Plenty of seeds after fruit rind collection go as waste and only limited seeds are utilized for seedling production. It is essential to evaluate the seeds for biochemical and nutritional factors, butter recovery as well as physico-chemical and nutritional properties of butter. In this context, the present study was undertaken with the objective to characterize the physico-chemical and nutritional properties of seed and seed butter in cambodge and kokum. The experiment was carried out in the Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara. Three high yielding accessions of each cambodge and kokum were selected from the department farm and college orchard of the College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, and ICAR-NBPGR, Regional Station, Vellanikkara. The significant difference was recorded among the accessions of cambodge and kokum seed powders for most of the biochemical characters and also between cambodge and kokum. The total carbohydrates, protein and total ash contents were significantly higher in cambodge seed powder (13.33 g/100 g ,1.28 g/100 g and 2.53 %) when compared to kokum seed powder (4.56 g/100 g, 0.42 g/100 g and 2.36 %), respectively. Whereas, in kokum seed powder significantly higher moisture content (11.45 %), total fat (40.28 %) and dietary fibre (4.55 %) were recorded. In the case of cambodge and kokum seed powders, all accessions exhibited significant differences in nutritional characters except for iron content. There was a significant difference in mineral composition between the cambodge and kokum seed powders. Calcium and iron contents were significantly higher in cambodge seed powder (163.20 and 16.20 mg/100 g) than that of kokum seed powder (48.30 and 14.30 mg/100 g), respectively. Whereas, potassium and sodium contents were significantly higher in kokum seed powder (608.50 and 32.10 mg/ 100 g) when compared to cambodge seed powder (478.40 and 15.00 mg/ 100 g), respectively. The recovery of butter ranged from 37.25 (petroleum benzene) to 44.98 (acetone) per cent in cambodge and 40.29 (petroleum ether) to 49.61 (acetone) per cent in kokum using different solvents. Butter recovery in cambodge and kokum were found higher in acetone compared to other solvents. But the appearance of butter was found good when extracted using petroleum ether. In both cambodge and kokum, butter extracted through the hot water skimming method ranged from 22 to 25 per cent. The seed butter extracted using petroleum ether was employed for physicochemical analysis. Among the cambodge accessions, a significant difference was recorded for the physico-chemical properties of butter except for refractive index, peroxide value and ester value. Whereas in kokum, all the accessions showed significant differences in physico-chemical properties except for ash content, iodine value and peroxide value. Moisture content, melting point, ash content, saponification value, iodine value and ester value were significantly superior in cambodge butter (0.40 %, 39.17 ℃, 0.139 %, 188.70 mg KOH/g, 57.05 g/100 g, 183.20 mg KOH/g) compared to kokum butter (0.15 %, 37.94 ℃, 0.116 %, 180.00 mg KOH/g, 37.95 g/100 g, 174.40 mg KOH/g), respectively. The oil content and peroxide value of butter were significantly higher in kokum (99.85 % and 5.81 meq/kg) than that of cambodge (99.60 % and 4.39 meq/kg), respectively. No significant difference was observed for refractive index, pH and acid value between cambodge and kokum butters. Among the cambodge accessions, significant difference was observed for nutritional composition in the seed butter. In kokum accessions, significant difference was recorded for nutritional composition except for sodium content. The significantly higher value for potassium content was recorded in cambodge (32.80 mg/100 g) compared to that of kokum (18.30 mg/100 g). Whereas for sodium content, significantly higher value was recorded in kokum butter (17.60 mg/100 g) when compared to cambodge butter (14.90 mg/100 g). No significant difference was recorded in calcium and iron contents between cambodge and kokum butters. The fatty acid profiling of seed butter in cambodge and kokum exhibited six prime fatty acids. In cambodge and kokum butters, high percentage (99) of long-chain fatty acids viz. stearic acid, oleic acid and palmitic acid were recorded. Stearic acid in cambodge butter ranged from 36.06 (acetone) to 50.76 per cent (petroleum ether), whereas in kokum butter, it ranged from 32.06 (acetone) to 62.54 per cent (petroleum benzene) using different solvents. Oleic acid percentage in cambodge butter ranged from 46.28 (petroleum ether) to 61.37 (acetone) per cent, and in the case of kokum butter it ranged from 35.59 (petroleum ether) to 65.43 per cent (acetone). The compounds such as palmitic acid, myristic acid, lauric acid and capric acid were also identified in smaller proportions in cambodge and kokum butter. In the organoleptic evaluation, cambodge and kokum butters were compared with milk and cocoa butters, which revealed that milk butter was superior in all the organoleptic qualities. Whereas, cambodge and kokum butter were significantly superior in quality attributes like appearance (7.69 and 7.53) and colour (7.58 and 7.82) compared to cocoa butter (6.82 and 6.64), respectively. Value added products viz. burfi and cake were prepared using cambodge, kokum, cocoa and milk butters. Organoleptic evaluation of value added products revealed that the burfi and cake prepared using milk butter was most accepted with a total score of 57.34, which was followed by burfi and cake of cambodge (55.48 and 53.11) and kokum (52.46 and 54.53), respectively. Both cambodge and kokum seed yield butter of food grade having high biochemical and nutritional properties which can be used in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic sectors.