1. KAUTIR (Kerala Agricultural University Theses Information and Retrieval)
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Item Exploring the potential of spent mushroom substrate extract from pleurotus spp. for the management of leaf blight of amaranthus (Amaranthus tricolor L.)(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2026) Devika, B S; Heera, GThe study entitled “Exploring the potential of spent mushroom substrate extract from Pleurotus spp. for the management of leaf blight of amaranthus (Amaranthus tricolor L.)” was conducted at Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2023-2025 with the objectives of evaluation of the efficacy of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) extract for the suppression of the leaf blight of amaranthus; and detection of associated biomolecule(s). The pathogen was isolated from the diseased amaranthus leaf and its pathogenicity was proved by Koch’s postulates. Cultural and morphological studies of the pathogen on potato dextrose agar medium revealed hyaline to brown, septate mycelia with right-angled branching and formation of white to brown irregular sclerotia after eight days of inoculation. Molecular characterization using LSU primers (LROR and LR7) validated the isolate as Rhizoctonia solani with accession number (PX411474). Pure culture of Pleurotus florida, P. ostreatus and P. sajor-caju were obtained from ICAR- DMR, Solan. Mushrooms were cultivated in paddy straw. Spent mushroom substrate, the by-product after cultivation (45 days), was collected from these three species of oyster mushroom. The spent substrates were shade dried, powdered and used for further studies. The nutrient analysis revealed that all SMS samples were rich in nutrients. Macronutrient analysis indicated that SMS of P. ostreatus contained the highest nitrogen (1.77%), potassium (1.40 ppm), and calcium (2.1%) contents, while SMS of P. florida had the highest phosphorus (0.16%) and magnesium (1.26%) levels, while the sulphur (0.61%) content was more for paddy straw (control). Among the micronutrients, boron concentration was highest in SMS of P. ostreatus (82 ppm), while zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and copper (Cu) concentrations were similar among all the treatments. These findings suggest that SMS has substantial nutrient value and can serve as a potential organic fertilizer. Water extracts of SMS (1:3 w/v) was prepared from each Pleurotus spp. after shaking the powdered SMS for 24-48 h in an incubator cum shaker, filtered and centrifuged at 10000 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant obtained was utilised as the crude extract which was evaluated against R. solani by poisoned food technique at different concentrations (250 ppm, 500 ppm, and 1000 ppm). Significant antifungal activity was observed in all the treatments. When compared to the control, at 250 ppm concentration of the extract, the radial growth of R. solani ranged from 0.58 to 1.82 cm in all the treated plates. The water extract of SMS (P. florida) treated plates showed complete mycelial inhibition (100%) of R. solani at 500 ppm and 1000 ppm concentrations, while the water extract of SMS (P. ostreatus) exhibited complete suppression of mycelial growth at 1000 ppm. The water extract of SMS (P. sajor- caju) was less effective with an inhibition percentage of 53 even at 1000 ppm concentration. Mycelial characters of R. solani in the treated plates was irregular and sparse compared to the dense, zonations in control. These results indicated that the SMS of Pleurotus spp., particularly P. florida, possesses potent antifungal compounds capable of inhibiting R. solani growth. A pot culture experiment was laid out in completely randomized design (CRD) to assess the efficacy of extracts of SMS, with 13 treatments and 3 replications, including foliar and soil applications of SMS extracts (0.2%), chemical (mancozeb @0.2%), biological control (Pseudomonas fluorescens @20 g/L) check, inoculated and absolute controls. Among different treatments, the foliar application and soil drenching with SMS extract (P. florida -T7) recorded the lowest Percent Disease Index (PDI) and lesion size, followed by foliar application and soil drenching of SMS extract of P. ostreatus (T8). The highest PDI (56.5%) was observed in the inoculated control (T12). Plants treated with SMS extracts delayed the symptom development and reduction in lesion size. In addition to disease suppression, significant enhancement was observed in the growth and yield attributes of the plants. SMS treated plants exhibited increased shoot and root length, higher fresh and dry biomass, compared to the untreated controls. Enhanced shoot and root biomass, and increased overall yield, were noted in SMS treated plants, particularly in T4 (soil drenching of P. ostreatus extract) and T7 (foliar spray + soil drenching of SMS extract (P. florida). The total yield was the maximum in T4 (soil drenching of P. ostreatus- 82 g/pot), whereas the highest plant height (47.5 cm) was observed in the case of T5 (foliar spray of SMS extract of P. sajor -caju). Biochemical assays carried out at 0,1,3,5,7 days after inoculation of the pathogen revealed significant enhancement in defense related enzymes viz., peroxidase (PO), polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) in the SMS treated amaranthus plants after the inoculation of the pathogen. The highest activities of PO and PPO were recorded in T7, while PAL activity peaked in the treatment T8. Gas Chromatography- Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) analysis of ethyl acetate extracts of SMS revealed the presence of various classes of bioactive metabolites including phenols, fatty acids, sterols, terpenoids and esters. Common bioactive compounds detected in the three Pleurotus spp. included phenolic compounds, terpenes, fatty acids and carboxylic acids, with reported antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. The present study demonstrated that SMS extracts of Pleurotus spp., particularly P. florida, possess strong antifungal potential against R. solani causing leaf blight of amaranthus. The extracts were rich in essential nutrients and bioactive compounds capable of suppressing pathogen growth, inducing plant defense responses, and promoting overall plant growth and vigor. Therefore, SMS extracts represent a promising, eco-friendly alternative to synthetic fungicides for the management of leaf blight of amaranthus.Item Wild edibile mushroom Termitomyces spp. for mycoprotein production(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture,Vellayan, 2023-03-31) Anukrishna V J.; Susha, S TharaThe present study entitled “Wild edible mushroom Termitomyces spp. for mycoprotein production, was conducted at Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2020-2022 with an objective to collect and identify the native isolates of Termitomyces spp., in order to determine the optimal conditions for mycelial biomass cultivation and, exploiting the potential of this mushroom for mycoprotein production. A survey was conducted in agro ecological units 8, 9 and 12 of Kerala, during the South West and North East monsoon periods of 2021 and 2022. Twenty six native isolates of Termitomyces were collected from Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts. The most distinguishing characters of this mushroom is the presence of an umbonate cap with a prominent perforatorium and a subterranean pseudorhiza. Identification of species were carried out based on macro and micro morphological characters. The macro-morphological characterisation revealed that the cap size varies enormously between the species. The colour of the cap varied from white-cream to grey, light brown to dark brown between species. The pseudorhiza length varied from none (Termitomyces microcarpus) to 35 cm (Termitomyces heimii). The stipe was mostly cylindrical, smooth and glabrous. The spore print was pink in colour. Micro- morphological characterisation revealed that the basidia (18- 30 μm x 5 -9.5 μm) were clavate, bearing four sterigmata, cystidia (24-49 μm x 8-28 μm) were clavate to pyriform, hyaline and the basidiospores (5.5-8.5μm x 3.5-6 μm) were hyaline, ovoid to ellipsoid in nature. Based on morphological characteristics, twenty six Termitomyces samples were identified as ten species. The species confirmed through molecular characterization include Termitomyces eurrhizus, Termitomyces striatus, Termitomyces cylindricus, Termitomyces fuliginosus, Termitomyces microcarpus (large form and small form), Termitomyces radicatus, Termitomyces robusts, Termitomyces sp (1), Termitomyces sp (2) and Termitomyces heimii. Among the nine species, Termitomyces sp (1) and Termitomyces sp (2) were identified as two new species of Termitomyces, the first record from Kerala. It was observed that T. microcarpus (large form and small form) was the most commonly occurring and widely distributed species in Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts followed by T. fuliginosus. Cultural studies showed that potato dextrose peptone agar was the best media for mycelial growth of Termitomyces spp. Significantly the largest colony diameter and highest biomass yield of all isolates were observed on potato dextrose peptone agar. Termitomyces eurrhizus (best isolate) showed the largest colony diameter (7.800 cm ±0.100) and biomass yield (1.675 ± 0.006) when compared with other isolates. The growth response of T. eurrhizus to various carbon sources in basal medium (potato dextrose peptone broth) was tested. Higher mycelial biomass production was found in dextrose as carbon source. Peptone was the best nitrogen source to promote higher mycelial production. The optimum temperature, pH and light intensity were identified as 300C, 5.5 and 2000 lux respectively. Mycelial production was nil at 150C, 200C and 350C. The lower and higher pH (4.5 and 7.5) retarded the mycelial growth. The best two isolates (T. eurrhizus, and T. fuliginosus) were used for mycoprotein production. Pelletization was achieved in 100 ml potato dextrose peptone broth of pH 5.5 at 150 rpm in light (2000 lux) after incubation for 20 days at 29±10C. The two isolates produced good pellets evidenced by micro and macro pellets. Spherical to oval compact pellet morphology was common. The most promosing srain was T. eurrhizus which produced brownish to light orange coloured smooth spherical to oval compact pellets (diameter: 1-12 mm). T. fuliginosus produced whitish to light brown coloured pellets (1-11 mm). The proximate analysis of mycoprotein pellet revealed the constituents including crude protein (25. 7%), carbohydrate (36. 59%), fibre (9.91%) fat (3%) and ash (12.3%). The protein content was found to be more in the pellet (25.7%) as compared to the mushroom fruiting body (21.48%). In view of difficulty of domestication of the wild edible mushroom, Termitomyces spp., the only way to exploit the potential is through mycelial biomass production by submerged culture. The present study revealed the possibility of utilizing T. eurrhizus and T. fuliginosus for mycoprotein production.Item Scenario analysis of Mushroom microenterprises(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2021) Swathy Suresh, K S; Jayasree Krishnankutty, MMushrooms have aroused man's interest since the dawn of civilization. They are considered as one of the most important high quality protein rich vegetable crops. Mushroom entrepreneurship if promoted, will offer plenty of advantages and have the capacity to assist rural society in establishing more long term economic growth. Kerala has an immense potential for mushroom production due its low cost, easy availability of raw materials, and round-the-year production capability. Even though a field with great scope for exploration, the studies with extension aspects are very limited and in this backdrop the present study was conducted to know about the current scenario of mushroom cultivation. The current study entitled “Scenario analysis of mushroom microenterprises” was conducted in Kerala Agricultural University. Data collection was carried out among 120 mushroom entrepreneurs. Sixty mushroom entrepreneurs each from Thrissur and Palakkad districts, mainly engaged in production (spawn / mushroom) and marketing; production, processing and marketing were randomly selected. The independent and dependent variables were selected for the study on the basis of judges rating. An interview schedule was prepared to collect data from mushroom entrepreneurs. Then the collected data were arranged, scored and analyzed using suitable statistical tools. The results revealed that among the 120 mushroom units, majority (56.66%) units were production and marketing type and 43.33 per cent of mushroom units were production, processing and marketing type. The analysis of mushroom unit structure showed that, majority (40.83%) of mushroom entrepreneurs had production unit size above 500 sq.feet; 54.16 per cent had kutcha type of mushroom shed; family or group labour was the source of labour for 75.83 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs and majority of them had equipments in the range of 2 to 4 in numbers. A large proportion (43.33%) of mushroom entrepreneurs belongs to the age category 31-40 years and around 40.83 per cent of them were graduates. Agriculture along with mushroom cultivation was the family occupation of majority (37.5%) of the mushroom entrepreneurs. Nearly 41.66 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs were received income per season in the range of Rs/- 25,000 – 50,000 and around 51.66 per cent had obtained yield per season above 150 Kg. Majority (28.33%) per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs had an experience of two and half to three years and about 30.83 per cent choose direct selling to consumers and local markets as their major marketing avenue. For transporting the mushroom products 68.33 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs were used their own vehicle. Majority of the mushroom entrepreneurs had medium level of economic motivation (80%), risk orientation (54.16%) and extension contact (71.66%). In case of mobility, the frequency of visit for most of the mushroom entrepreneurs were to nearby panchayath and town for various purposes. Institutional supports like training and SHM subsidy were availed by majority (48.33%) of the mushroom entrepreneurs. The various institutions providing support includes Kerala Agricultural University, Extension Centres, Research Organizations, State Horticulture Mission and Kudumbasree District Mission. The analyses of producer characteristics were carried out using two way contingency table and chi-square test, and inferred that there exist a positive significant relationship between the type of mushroom shed and yield; marketing avenue and income; marketing avenue and family occupation. Other salient findings from the study revealed that majority (61.66%) of mushroom entrepreneurs were females and nearly 85.83 per cent were sole entrepreneurs. Around 81.66 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs had their own source of investment for mushroom cultivation. Oyster mushroom was the major type cultivated by 68.33 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs, 35 per cent of them were collecting mushroom spawns from various government sources and nearly 79.16 per cent didn’t face any problem regarding the quality of yield and spawn. Around 84 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs had trade mark for their mushroom products. Polythene cover was the packing material used by 75.83 per cent of mushroom entrepreneurs. The performance of mushroom units includes four dimensions ie., Social Capital Indicators (SCI), Good Mushroom Cultivation Practices (GMCP), Efficiency Indicators (EI) and Incremental Expansion (IE). The overall performance score shows that, majority (62.5%) of mushroom units performs under medium category. Using discriminant analysis and binary logistic regression, a comparison was done with dimensions of performance index and type of units. The result stated that the dimension Social Capital Indicators (SCI) is the significantly discriminating one for type of units. The relationship of independent variables with the performance of mushroom units had been analyzed using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient method. The independent variables like size of production unit, income per season, yield per season, experience, type of mushroom shed, marketing avenue, risk orientation, extension contact, mode of transport for sale of goods and institutional support shows a positive significant relationship and the variables such as source of labour and family occupation shows a negative significant relationship with the performance of mushroom units. The major constraints faced by mushroom entrepreneurs were marketing difficulty, price instability and lack of market information. Finally, strategic options such as promotion of direct marketing method, extension interventions, creating public awareness, providing trainings, etc. were suggested for the improvement of mushroom enterprises. A futuristic scenario analysis was also conducted to predict the futuristic possibilities of mushroom enterprises in Kerala.Item Characterization of medicinal mushroom, cordyceps sp. from Kasargod district(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2018) Laya, P K; Yamini Varma, C KItem Enhancement of systemic resistance to soil borne pathogens of ginger by enriched spent mushroom substrate of pleurotus sajor-caju(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2017) Remya, J S; Beena, SItem Characterization and exploitation of jelly mushrooms (auricularia spp./ Tremella spp.)(Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Priya, R U; Geetha, D