1. KAUTIR (Kerala Agricultural University Theses Information and Retrieval)

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    Microwave hydro-distillation and ultrasound assisted extraction of bioactive components from nutmeg pericarp
    (Department of Processing and Food Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Food Technology, Tavanur, 2025-01-20) Noorbia Razak; Prince, M V
    Myristica fragrans Houtt. produces two economically important spices, but its fleshy outer pericarp is often discarded, leading to environmental pollution, despite its potential as a rich source of bioactive compounds. These compounds contribute to the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and many therapeutic properties. Diversifying pericarp by extracting its compounds as essential oil and oleoresin could enhance its economic value. Conventional extraction methods result in lower extraction efficiency and quality. To circumvent these issues, eco-innovative technologies such as Microwave Assisted Hydro-distillation (MAHD) for volatile essential oil and Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) for non-volatile oleoresin which offers sustainable results were exploited in this study to efficiently extract the phytochemicals in pericarp and to optimise the process parameters thus increasing its utilisation potential. For MAHD process, Box-Behnken design was framed with the selected process variables of solid to water ratio (1:4 to 1:8 g/ml), exposure time (1 to 2 h) and microwave power (320 to 640 W) and the responses were essential oil yield, specific gravity, and energy consumption. For extracting the oleoresin from the MAHD extracted samples UAE was employed, for which a Central Composite experimental design was framed. The process variables such as solid to solvent ratio (1:4 to 1:6 g/ml), sonication time (10 to 30 min) and types of solvent (ethanol and ethyl acetate) were selected for optimising the response variables of oleoresin yield, total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC). The optimised conditions for essential oil yield were determined as 1:8 g/ml, 1.5 h with 320 W power for obtaining a maximum yield of 0.4% with minimum energy consumption of 0.6 kWh and a specific gravity of 0.917. Maximum oleoresin yield, TPC and TFC of 5.524%, 66.449 mg GAE/g and 4.284 mg QE/g respectively were observed for the process variables of 1:5.42 g/ml, 30 min in ethanol as the optimized condition for oleoresin. The optimised extracts exhibited improved physicochemical and microstructural properties compared to conventional extraction process. These findings suggests that the extraction of bioactive compounds from nutmeg pericarp employing MAHD and UAE holds a significant economic potential with high extraction efficiency and quality.
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    Identification and characterisation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) genotypes of southern Kerala
    (Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2021-11-21) Nainu Joseph.; Sreekala, G S
    The research work on “Identification and characterisation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) genotypes of Southern Kerala” was undertaken during 2020-21 at the Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Agriculture, Vellayani. A survey was conducted in the nutmeg growing belts of Agro-Ecological Unit (AEU) 4 of Kottayam and Pathanamthitta districts, AEU 8 of Thiruvanathapuram district, AEU 9 of Kottayam, Pathanamthitta and Thiruvanathapuram districts, AEU 12 of Kottayam and Kollam districts and AEU 14 of Pathanamthitta district for identification of nutmeg genotypes with superior yield and variability. Among the fifty nutmeg genotypes surveyed twenty one genotypes were selected for characterization and in situ evaluation. The twenty one selected nutmeg genotypes from homesteads and estates were denoted as KDR 1, MNA 2, MNA 3, MNA 4, MPY 5, MPY 6, MPY 7, MPY 8, NLD 9, NLD 10, PND 11, PND 12, PKM 13, PLA 14, PLA 15, PLA 16, PLA 17, PRA 18, VNI 19, VNI 20 and VNI 21 based on the location of study. Qualitative and quantitative characterization of twenty one genotypes was undertaken for tree, leaf, flower, fruit and seed characters. Based on the DUS guidelines provided by PPV & FRA (2015) and minimal descriptor developed (Vikram, 2016) on nutmeg, thirty six qualitative characters were observed in the study in which height of tree, sex form, presence of caruncle and fruit length were non variable characters. The thirty two variable qualitative characters were subjected to hierarchical cluster analysis. UPGMA (Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetical Averages) dendrogram was generated from the qualitative characters and fourteen clusters were formed at 65 percent similarity. Based on the clusters formed in the dendrogram, genotypes namely, MNA 3, NLD 9, NLD 10, PRA 18 and PLA 16 were closely related (cluster II), MPY 5 and PKM 13 (cluster III), PKD 11 and PLA 15 (cluster IV) and PLA 17 and VNI 20 (cluster VI). KDR 1 with yellow mace formed a separate cluster (Cluster I). The monoecious genotype VNI 21 was distinctly different from other clusters. Thirty two quantitative characters including biochemical characters were observed in the selected genotypes. Under the multivariate analysis for quantitative characters, principal component analysis was used as a statistical tool to interpret the parameters. The thirty two quantitative characters were reduced to eight principal component groups contributing a total variance of 84.518%. Based on the loadings in principal components 1 and 2, score plot and biplot was generated. The score plot grouped genotypes into 15 clusters in which genotypes with superior yield namely, PKD 11, PLA 14, NLD 9, PKM 13 and PRA 18 formed unique clusters. The pooled mean of yield characters revealed that five genotypes namely PKD 11, PLA 14, NLD 9, PKM 13 and PRA 18 were superior in yield. Significantly superior number of fruits per tree, fresh and dry mace yield and fresh nut yield per tree was observed in PKD 11 which was followed by PLA 14 with high yield in terms of number of fruits per tree, mace, nut and kernel yield. Significantly superior dry nut and kernel yield was obtained in NLD 9. PKM 13 and PRA 18 also recorded significantly high number of fruits per tree, dry mace, dry nut and dry kernel yield as compared to other genotypes. Thirty six qualitative characters were reduced to a minimal descriptor of eight characters namely, crown shape, shape of leaf blade, number of flowers per cluster, nature of fruit bearing, colour of mace (fresh), mace covering pattern, attachment of mace to nut and seed colour. Thirty two quantitative characters was reduced to a minimal data set of five characters such as number of flowers per cluster, height of tree, fruit weight, single kernel weight (dry) and fruit set percentage. Those genotypes with best combinations of these qualitative and quantitative characters can be selected for yield in nutmeg. Thus based on the identification, characterization and in situ evaluation for two years, PKD 11, PLA 14, NLD 9, PKM 13 and PRA 18 with superior yield and yellow maced genotype KDR 1 were selected for future crop improvement studies in nutmeg.
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    Weather extremes preparedness of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) farmers in Kerala
    (Academy of Climate Change Education and Research ,Vellanikkara, 2021) Adharsh, C J; Ajith Kumar, B
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    Host range studies and management of anthracnose of nutmeg caused by colletotrichum spp.
    (Department of Plant pathology Vellayani, 2020) Bommana Divya; Heera, G
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    Development and optimization of microwave assisted process for extraction of nutmeg mace essential oil
    (Department of Food and Agricultural Process Engineering, Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur, 2016) Nukasani Sagarika; Prince, M V
    Essential oils which are the volatile components distilled from the aromatic plant materials, have gained importance in cosmetic, therapeutic, aromatic, fragrant and spiritual uses. But the conventional methods of distillation carry the disadvantages mainly concerned with the quality of final product such as loss of some volatile notes, low extraction efficiency and degradation of unsaturated ester compounds through thermal or hydrolytic effects. These processes also requires high extraction times and energy consumption. However, in order to reduce these difficulties microwave energy could be effectively used to mediate extraction of essential oil in place of steam or water heating in order to introduce its inherent advantages. As in the case of microwave heating of food materials, the internal heating of the in-situ water within the plant material by the microwaves leads to the rupture of the glands and oleferous receptacles freeing the essential oil which is then evaporated by the in-situ water of the plant material. The water then evaporated could then be passed through a condenser outside the microwave cavity where it is condensed. This study envisages development of a microwave assisted extraction system for extracting nutmeg mace essential oil. The developed extraction system consists of a microwave cavity, extraction unit, supporting stand and energy meter. In order to evaluate the developed system towards extraction of nutmeg mace essential oil, the process parameters like solid: water ratios of 1:14. 1:10 and 1:6, power densities of 9.6, 14.4 and 19.2 W/g and soaking times of 2, 3 and 4 h which would influence the essential oil yield, extraction time and energy consumption were chosen as independent variables. The physical quality characteristics like refractive index, specific gravity, solubility and colour of essential oil were selected as dependent variables. The optimized conditions of solid: water ratio, power density and soaking time for extracting nutmeg mace essential oil in microwave assisted process was found to be 1: 14, 14.4 W/g and 4 h respectively. Therefore, microwave assisted extraction could be considered as an extraction technique that results in the production of high quality oil in higher quantity in less time with minimum energy consumption.
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    Characteization and evaluation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) accessions
    (Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Vikram, H C; Mini Raj, N
    Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) is an introduced crop to India. There exists tremendous variability in the nutmeg population in Kerala, which is the major nutmeg growing state in the country. Assessment of the existing variability is a prerequisite for taking up successful crop improvement programmes, which is very much limited in this tree spice. In this context, the present study entitled “Characterization and evaluation of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) accessions” was taken up exclusively with the specific objectives to characterize nutmeg accessions based on morphological, biochemical and molecular parameters so as to scale the variability in a multidimensional way. Select fifty nutmeg accessions from a core germplasm collected and maintained in a private plantation in the Chalakudy river basin, belonging to age of fifteen years, formed the material for the study. Among the select fifty accessions, forty two were females, four monoecious and four males. In the morphological characterization, 51 qualitative and 38 quantitative characters were recorded from two trees per accession. Biochemical characterization was done in the select seventeen distinct accessions. GC-MS profiling was done in kernel and mace oils. Biochemical constituents of fresh pericarp were estimated. Isozyme profiling was done for peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes. The molecular characterization was attempted with 21 RAPD and 12 ISSR primers after screening. A key for identification of an elite nutmeg tree was developed. A descriptor for nutmeg with a set of 51 qualitative and 38 quantitative parameters and descriptor states for each of these characters was developed as the first step. This is the first study of its kind to develop a minimal descriptor for nutmeg. The descriptor developed from the present study was simultaneously utilised for morphological characterization and evaluation of the accessions. Wide variability was noticed among the accessions for 47 out of 51 qualitative characters. Four characters viz., leaf margin, fruit pubescence, grooves on nut and nature of fruit dehiscence were noted as non variable characters and hence, these were not included for further analysis. Based on the qualitative characters, accessions were classified into 11 clusters at 66 per cent similarity level. Accessions differed significantly for all the quantitative characters except shelling percentage. Performance evaluation of the accessions brought out the superiority of accession 8, 9 and 22 for yield. The accessions showed high GCV, PCV, h2 and genetic gain for most of the characters. Number of fruits per tree, fruit set percentage, number of fruits per m2, fresh and dry weight of mace, mace volume as well ratio of nut to mace exhibited high genetic gain. Hence, selection programme based on these characters will be very effective in improving the base populations. Based on Mahalanobis D2 analysis, accessions were grouped into 10 clusters. Wide range of variation was observed in contents of volatile oil, oleoresin and fixed oil of kernel and mace. Based on these constituents accessions were grouped into 26 clusters, which indicated their distinct quality. Based on the results of the morphological characterization, seventeen distinct accessions were selected for further biochemical and molecular analysis. GC-MS analysis of kernel and mace oils exhibited 20 and 24 constituents respectively. Volatile oil composition exhibited wide variability for the major constituents viz., myristicin, elemicin, safrole and sabinene apart from the presence of some unique compounds. Grouping of the accessions was done based on the per cent content of these important compounds. Two accessions recorded high contents of both myristicin and elemicin whereas another two accessions were in the complimentary; belonging to low myristicin group. High sabinene combined with low myristicin was the intrinsic quality attribute of one of the accessions. Change, as well as addition/deletion of specific constituents was also noticed in the volatile oils after storage for one year. Accessions exhibited wide range of variation in the biochemical constituents of pericarp, a valuable information for the value addition of pericarp. Total phenol and tannins exhibited high variation. The accessions were ranked based on the content of biochemical constituents. Isozyme profiling using peroxidase enzyme produced four bands and that based on polyphenol oxidase exhibited three bands. Molecular markers could assess the variability among the accessions. The selected 21 RAPD primers produced a total of 164 amplicons of which 63.21 per cent were polymorphic. The 12 ISSR primers selected produced a total of 87 amplicons of which 69.44 per cent were polymorphic. Few unique bands were detected for specific characters. Inter cluster association of each of the qualitative clusters with other clustering patterns was worked out. The results indicated the differences as well as similarities of the qualitative clusters with other clustering patterns. Finally, key quantitative characters were identified based on their direct and indirect effect on yield as also economic importance. The statistical key thus developed using 13 key quantitative characters will serve as a preliminary tool for identification of an elite nutmeg tree.
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    Collection and characterization of unique genotypes of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.)
    (Department of Plantation and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2016) Priyanka Chandran, S; Mini Raj, N
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    Quality characters of clove and nutmeg at different stages of maturity
    (Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture,vellayani, 1990) Manoj, A M; Vasanthakumar, K
    The present investigation was carried out at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 1988 – 89. The objectives of this study were to characterise the growth pattern of clove flower buds and nutmeg fruits and to develop suitable harvest indices for these crops based on quality characteristics at different stages of maturity. The moisture content in clove buds and rind of nutmeg fruits increased with increase in maturity. However, moisture percentage in nutmeg kernel and mace was found to decrease as maturity advanced. The non – volatile ether extract (NVEE), on dry weight basis, was found to decrease on maturity advanced in clove buds and in mace while in nutmeg kernel the NVEE showed an increasing trend. The volatile oil in clove, nutmeg and mace was more at the immature stages and it progressively decreased at the peak harvesting stages. Eugenol, the chief component in clove oil was the maximum at the flowering stage. Hence for extraction of clove oil which is intended for use in medicine, dentistry and other pharmaceutical uses, it is advisable to harvest clove buds at the anthesis stage. The aromatic ethers which are the chief components that determine the flavour and drug action in nutmeg oil was the maximum one month prior to the fruit splitting stage. In mace oil it was found to be high two months prior to fruit splitting stage. So if nutmeg and mace oils are intended for medicinal purpose, then it may be worthwhile to harvest nutmeg fruits at the 6th month for extracting kernel oil and at the 5th month for extracting mace oil. Considering the fact that the nutmeg fruit yield both nutmeg and mace oil, harvesting separately at different maturity stages for extraction of the different oils is practically difficult. The aromatic phenol and phenol ethers showed a very low value in mace oil one month prior to fruit splitting. So in practice the fruit may be harvested two months prior to fruit splitting for extraction of both nutmeg and mace oils. However the high moisture content at this stage makes drying a problem. So such a practice of early harvesting of nutmeg fruits may be resorted to in places where facilities are available for extraction of oil from the fresh kernel and mace immediately after harvesting.
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    Induction of orthotrops in vegetatively propagated nutmeg (myristica fragrans houtt.) plants.
    (Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 1994) Rani, T G; Nazeem, P A
    Investigations were made to induce orthotrops in vegetatively propagated nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) plants at the Department of plantation Crops and Spices, college of Horticulture , vellanikkara, Thrissur during the period 1993-94. Budding orthotropic scions on there year old nutmeg plants alone showed bud take. In situ budding on three year old field plants gave the maximum bud take and bud sprouting . Among the different methods tried , maximum initial success was obtained with patch method in M. fragrans and forkert method in M. beddomei. The month of August was found to be the best season for in situ budding and July for budding in polybag plants. Partial shade was found ideal for better bud take than the mist . chamber conditions in nutmeg. Stumping the root stock above the bud union retaining the whorl of lower leaves gave better sprouting and later survival. The anatomical studies of bud union revealed the sequence of bud union as the callus formation stages , callus bridge stage and cambial differentiation stage. Absence of callusing , damage to cambial layers of stock or scion, thick necrotic layer and a wide gap between stock and scion and phenolic exudation were attributed to the probable reasons for bud failure . On mature branches of nutmeg trees, maximum number of orthotrops were induced when an orthotrop was cut close to the tree trunk leaving 30 cm stump. Staking the immature brown shoots of one to two years age and young green shoots of less than six months of nutmeg grafts acquired a reduced angle with the vertical even one month after removal of stake. Among the physical and chemical treatments tried to induce orthotrops in nutmeg grafts of plagiotropic nature, the treatments stumping and application of 5 ppm kinetin was found superior with respect to the number of shoots produced per plant. However , none of the shoots were found to have orthotropic growth pattern. Anatomy of orthotropic and staked stems revealed the production of more wood towards the adaxial side than towards the adaxial side. Plagiotropic stem have more or less proportionate wood formation on both sides.
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    In vitro shoot regeneration and micrografting in nutmeg (Myristice fragrans houtt.)
    (Centre for Plant Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2008) Liffey Zachariah Antony; Valsala, P A