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Item Causes and consequences of declining rice cultivation in Kerala: a micro-macro analysis(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025-01-06) Amal Prasad; Anil KuruvilaAgriculture has historically been the backbone of Kerala’s economy, with rice holding a special place as a staple food and a cultural symbol. The state’s distinct geographical features, including fertile river basins and abundant monsoons, have made it ideal for rice cultivation. However, over the decades, Kerala has witnessed a steady decline in the area under rice cultivation, raising concerns about food security, ecological sustainability, and farmers' livelihoods. This research, titled "Causes and Consequences of Decline in Rice Cultivation in Kerala: A Micro-Macro Analysis", delves into the underlying factors driving this decline, the socioeconomic and environmental challenges faced by farmers, and the effectiveness of government interventions aimed at sustaining rice cultivation. Understanding the factors driving this shift is crucial for shaping the future of agriculture in the state. The study was based on both primary and secondary data. Primary data were collected through personal interviews of 200 rice farmers in three major rice producing districts of Kerala: Palakkad, Alappuzha, and Thrissur. Four blocks were purposively selected from each district, and two panchayats were chosen randomly from each block. The selected blocks were Malampuzha, Palakkad, Kuzhalmannam and Alathur from Palakkad district; Pazhayanoor, Chowannur, Anthikad, and Wadakkanchery from Thrissur district and Veliyanad, Champakkulam, Ambalapuzha and Haripad blocks from Alappuzha district. Secondary data from 1957-58 to 2022 23 were also sourced from government publications. The structural break analysis provided the basis for dividing the study period into four sub-periods: Period I (1957-58 to 1986-87), Period II (1987-88 to 1996-97), Period III (1997-98 to 2006-07), and Period IV (2007-08 to 2022-23). This division allowed for a detailed examination of the trends and shifts in rice cultivation across different phases. The time series data analysis revealed that the decline in rice cultivation in Kerala has been steady but varied across periods and the period-wise analysis showed distinct trends over time. During the first period (1957-58 to 1986 87), rice cultivation peaked but began to decline, but the productivity improvements helped to sustain production. In the second period, cultivated areas were driven by shifts to cash crops like rubber and coconut. The third period marked the steepest decline, reflecting the continued shift towards other crops and increasing urbanisation and economic pressures. However, the final period saw a moderate decline due to interventions like the Kerala Conservation of Paddy Land and Wetland Act of 2008, which, along with technological advancements, helped stabilise production despite continued reduction in area. Macro-level factors influencing the decline in rice cultivation were analysed using panel data regression and Markov chain analysis. The key drivers included the shift towards competing crops, rising costs of cultivation, escalating labour charges, and the conversion of rice fields for non-agricultural purposes. These trends highlighted the growing influence of real estate business and urbanisation, which elevated land as a lucrative asset, further accelerating the shift from rice cultivation. Micro-level factors, analysed through binary logistic and probit regression models and correspondence analysis, revealed critical drivers behind farmers' decisions to continue or abandon rice cultivation. Total land ownership, adequate water availability, higher yields, and governmental support positively influenced farmers, encouraging them to sustain rice farming. Conversely, higher land value of garden land, escalating labour costs, labour scarcity, perceived profitability of competing crops, and the impact of abnormal weather patterns and natural calamities were associated with a higher likelihood for conversion of rice fields. These adverse factors significantly contributed to the decline in rice cultivation. Social Network Analysis (SNA) was utilised for identifying the key influencers shaping rice cultivation decisions in Kerala. The analysis highlighted the significant impact of both formal and informal networks on rice farmers. Major influencers identified through SNA included Padashekara samitis, Krishi Bhavans, and local family networks, all showing high levels of influence in guiding farming decisions. In Palakkad, Padashekara samitis and Krishi Bhavans emerged as the strongest influences, while in Alappuzha, the role of pump suppliers, due to the region's water management challenges, was particularly prominent. These networks, through their varying degrees of authority, are key players in shaping rice cultivation practices, underlining the importance of understanding local connections and their influence on effective policy interventions. Governmental interventions have played a crucial role in sustaining rice cultivation in Kerala. Key interventions such as the Kerala Conservation of Paddy Land and Wetland Act (KCPWA) of 2008, state procurement programmes, and the State Incentive Bonus (SIB) have been pivotal in supporting farmers. The KCPWA protected rice-growing areas from being converted into non-agricultural uses, while the state procurement program, through Supplyco, ensured a stable market and fair prices for rice. The SIB enhanced profitability by providing higher prices for paddy, making rice cultivation more profitable. Despite many challenges in implementing interventions, governmental measures have had a significant positive impact on sustaining rice cultivation. The major recommendations derived from this research include improving water management through efficient and timely water supply via canal irrigation systems in Palakkad and Thrissur, constructing strong bunds in Alappuzha, strengthening the implementation of the Kerala Conservation of Paddy Land and Wetland Act (KCPWA) by enhancing the functioning of the Local Level Monitoring Committee and frequent updation of the rice data bank and strengthening Padasekharam activities, including training on modern agricultural technologies and facilitating access to shared machinery hubs. Furthermore, improvements in procurement systems, ensuring timely cash disbursal, and making good quality paddy seeds available are essential for farmers' economic stability. Reclamation of fallow lands and promotion of climate-resilient varieties would contribute to increased rice production.Item Impact of climate change and adaptation strategies in banana production in Thiruvananthapuram district(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2023-04-19) Takale Asmita Bhausaheb; Paul LazarusThe research entitled “Impact of climate change and adaptation strategies in banana production in Thiruvananthapuram district” was conducted. The objective of the study was to quantify the impact of climate change on yield of banana, identification and analysis of the adaptation practices practised by farmers. Secondary data regarding area production, productivity and climatic variables were collected for Thiruvananthapuram district for the period 1991-2021 from Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Vikas Bhavan, Thiruvananthapuram and NASA power website and primary data were confined to Thiruvananthapuram district for the agricultural year 2021-2022. Multiple linear regression model was done to identify the climatic variables that are influencing the production, binary logistic regression was fitted to understand the socioeconomic variables influencing adoption of adaptation practices, CACP cost concepts were used to calculate the annual cost of banana farmers and compound annual growth rate was calculated for the area, production, productivity and climatic parameters given to know the growth trend. A positive growth of area (5.35 % per annum) and production (2.86 % per annum) were observed spite of having negative trend in productivity (-2.36 % per annum). Coefficient of variation was high in area as compared to production and productivity of banana in Thiruvananthapuram and coefficient of variation for area, production and productivity were 42.68, 32.62 and 32.71 per cent, respectively. Coefficient of variation was highest for rainfall among all weather parameters i.e., 19.52 per cent. All weather parameters have positive growth rate except wind speed (-0.24 % per annum at 1 % level of significance). Positive trend of minimum temperature was 0.13 per cent per annum and was significant at 5 per cent level of significance. On doing multiple linear regression analysis, Q4 (October to December) the coefficient for temperature was positively significant at 1 per cent level of significance. This means that increased temperature during this period resulted in increased production of banana in the district. Also Q4 (October to December) rainfall was positively significant at 5 per cent level of significance. This means that one per cent increase in temperature during Q4 will increase the production by 13.9 per cent and one per cent increase in rainfall during Q4 will increase the production of banana by 0.42 per cent due to optimum temperature and rainfall. Q4 is the important growth stage in banana for those who planted in Q2 (April- June), Q4 coincided with flowering, pollination and fruit formation. The analysis revealed that growing mixed short duration cropping (vegetables) was the major adaptation practice followed by crop insurance which was practised by 71 per cent and 65 per cent of the total respondents, respectively. The major impact perceived was decrease in yield which was reported by 100 per cent of both adopters and non adopters. Also, cost of propping was the adaptation practice which costed them ₹ 17,722 ha-1 compared to other adaptation practices followed by adopters. In the case of non adopters cost of propping was the major cost which was ₹8,951 ha-1 as compared to other adaptation practices followed. Binary logistic regression analysis was done to identify the socioeconomic variables influencing adaptation practices followed by adopters. It was found that, area and income were found positively significant at 1 per cent level of significance. Odds ratio for area and income were 1.04 and 1.99. From the socio economic status of respondents, at the aggregate level about 38 per cent of respondents had 0.2 to 0.4 ha of area under banana. This means, the farmers who were having more area under banana farming and more income are likely to adopt the adaptation practices one times more than the farmers who are having less area and income. Calculated partial elasticity showed that for one per cent increase in area under banana farming increases the probability of adopting adaptation practices by 0.99 per cent. Annual cost of cultivation was calculated using CACP cost concepts. The magnitude of Cost C incurred by adopters (₹ 3,74,844 ha-1) was 12.27 per cent higher than non adopters (₹ 3,33,862.31 ha-1). Net returns at Cost C for adopters was ₹ 4,27,932 ha-1 and for non adopters was ₹ 1,96,634 ha-1. Benefit cost ratio at Cost C for adopters was 2.14 which was more than that of non adopters who had 1.59. The yield recorded by adopters (16,056 kg ha-1) was 42.25 per cent higher than that of non adopters (11,287 kg ha-1). Gross returns in case of adopters was ₹ 8,02,775 ha-1, which was 51.32 per cent higher than the non adopters (₹ 5,30,497 ha-1). Q4 (October to December) temperature and rainfall had positive impact on banana production. Increase in area and income under banana farming increases the probability of adopting adaptation practices. Net returns of adopters were more than that of non adopters. Increase in labour cost, fluctuation in market prices and high cost of adaptation practices were major problems faced by both farmers. Coefficient of variation was highest for rainfall among all weather parameters. All weather parameters have positive growth rate except wind speed. Hence adaptation measures are propping, crop insurance and intercropping with short duration crops helps to reduce the risk of floodingItem Economic analysis of cut foliage in Malappuram and Ernakulam district(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2024-01-18) Shamna, P; Chitra ParayilThe floriculture sector has seen tremendous growth and development in recent decades, and has established itself as a lucrative business with high potential for returns. The total area under floriculture in India has increased from 106 to 307 thousand hectares between 2000 to 2020, along with an increase in production from 505 to 2994 metric tonnes. India is bestowed with diverse agro-climatic zones conducive to the production of various floriculture products including cut foliage, which are directly used for decoration purpose as well as fillers in floral arrangements. The export value of fresh foliage, branches, grasses, mosses, dried and dyed flowers (₹311.5 crores) accounted to 44 per cent of the total export value of floriculture products (₹707.8 crores) from India in the year 2022-23. The highly congenial tropical climatic conditions in Kerala characterized by adequate sunshine, high levels of humidity and abundant rainfall has favoured the commercial cultivation of cut foliage in the state. The present study was carried out with the objectives of analysing the economics and resource use efficiency in cut foliage production; identifying the marketing channels and working out the economics in marketing, and determining the major constraints in production and marketing of cut foliage. Three major cut foliage crops grown in Kerala were selected for the study, namely, Dracaena fragrans cv. massangeana, Dracaena reflexa ‘Song of India’ and Drcaena reflexa ‘Song of Jamaica’. The study was based on primary data collected from 30 sample respondents from each crop in Malappuram and Ernakulam districts, making the total sample size to 90. Primary data was also collected from 5 traders and 2 exporters through personal interview method using a structured and pre-tested interview schedule. The cost and returns for the three cut foliage crops were estimated by separately working out the establishment and maintenance costs. The crops were perennial in nature with an economic life span of around 15 years with the first year as the establishment phase and the remaining as the maintenance period which was further divided into yield increasing phase (2 to 5 years), yield stabilizing phase (5 to 10 years) and yield declining phase (10 to 15 years). The total cost of cultivation was worked out as ₹2,83,866, ₹1,92,074 and ₹1,90,326 per hectare for Dracaena fragrans cv. massangeana, Dracaena reflexa ‘Song of India’ and Dracaena reflexa ‘Song of Jamaica’ respectively. While, the net returns for these crops were ₹6,76,092, ₹4,47,926 and ₹5,09,674 per hectare respectively. The resource use efficiency in cut foliage production was analysed using Cobb- Douglas production function. The age of plants and human labour were found to be significant and positively influencing the yield of all the three crops. The value of coefficient of determination (R2) were 0.77, 0.72 and 0.73 for Dracaena fragrans cv. massangeana, Dracaena reflexa ‘Song of India’ and Drcaena reflexa ‘Song of Jamaica’, respectively, which indicated an overall good fit model for all the three crops. The ratio of Marginal Value Product (MVP) to Marginal Factor Cost (MFC) was found to be less than one for all the significant inputs in the three crops which denoted excess utilization of the inputs. Four marketing channels were identified for Dracaena fragrans cv. massangeana, while three channels were identified for Drcaena reflexa ‘Song of India’ and Dracaena reflexa ‘Song of Jamaica’. The marketing efficiency was worked out using Shepherd’s index and for all the three crops, channel II (Producers- Florists outside the state- consumers) was found to be the most efficient one with highest marketing efficiency with values 2.49, 4.09 and 3.26 for the three crops respectively. The constraints faced in the production and marketing of cut foliage were analysed using Garett ranking technique. The major constraints confronted by cut foliage farmers in production were high cost of planting materials, followed by high labour charges and lack of training and technical expertise. The major marketing constraints included non-availability of cold storage facilities, irregular demand and low price for the produce. In order to overcome these constraints and strengthen the cut foliage industry, ensuring the availability of quality planting materials at affordable rates, better infrastructure for cold storage, packing and transportation, providing practical trainings on the production techniques, financial and technical support from the Government to the sector are suggested.Item Economic analysis of seed production of select vegetables in Palakkad district(Department Of Agricultural Economics, College Of Agriculture , Vellanikkara, 2023-05-25) Anupama Rajeevan; Chitra ParayilSeed is regarded as the critical input in agriculture for increasing and sustaining agricultural production. It is estimated that the quality of seed accounts for 20-25 per cent of productivity (Anonymous, 2013). Use of quality seed is of utmost importance in order to realize the maximum utilization of other inputs viz., fertilizers, irrigation, pesticides and other improved agronomic practices. Quality and timely seed supplies are vital in maintaining vegetable production as well as availability for ensuring food security in developing countries. The production of vegetables has been touching new records every year, making it the most favoured agricultural commodity. Vegetable production during 2017-18 recorded an increase to 184 million tonnes from 10.3 million ha area, whereas it was less than 20 million tonnes during the period of independence. This manifold increase needs to be made consistent to meet the demand of 1.5 billion people by 2030 which could be attained by proper and timely utilization of different inputs involved in crop production (Mohan et al., 2022). Therefore, quality seed production plays a major role in Indian agriculture by providing food, nutritional and economic security and more importantly, producing higher returns per unit area and time. The study was based on primary data collected from VFPCK vegetable seed farmers of Chittur and Nenmara blocks of Palakkad district owing to their highest number in the respective blocks. The crops selected for the study were bitter gourd, snake gourd, ash gourd and pumpkin due to their higher proportion in area and production to the total vegetables in the study area. A total of 52 sample respondents each were randomly selected for bitter gourd and snake gourd and 40 each were selected for ash gourd and pumpkin. This accounted to a total sample size of 184 seed farmers from the study area. The cost of cultivation for seed production of four vegetables were worked out using tabular and percentage analysis. Human labour accounted for the highest percentage (50.9 in bitter gourd, 50.25 in snake gourd, 37.02 in ash gourd and 32.25 in pumpkin) to total cost in all the selected vegetables. The total cost of cultivation was found to be highest in bitter gourd with ₹2,70,669ha-1 followed by snake gourd (₹2,57,343ha-1), ash gourd (₹1,58,813ha-1) and pumpkin (₹1,45,621ha-1). The benefit cost ratios were found to be stable with 2.55 for bitter gourd, 2.24 for snake gourd, 1.96 for ash gourd and 2.02 for pumpkin. Also, the major operational cost in seed production for the four crops was found in manure application followed by fertilizer application and land preparation. The determinants of production of quality seeds were analyzed using multiple linear regression where the seed yield was regressed with the different parameters like fertilizers, manures, plant protection, human labour and experience of the farmer. In bitter gourd, manures, plant protection and experience of the farmer were found as the major determinants of quality seed production while in snake gourd it was manures, fertilizers and experience of the farmer. Fertilizers, human labour and experience of the farmer were found to affect the quality seed production in ash gourd. Besides these, fertilizers and experience of the farmer were found to contribute to production of quality seeds in pumpkin. The efficiency of the inputs involved in the seed production of the vegetables under study were analysed using Cobb-Douglas production function and quantity of manures and fertilizers were found to significantly influence the seed yield in bitter gourd and snake gourd. The ratio of MVP to MFC for manures and fertilizers in bitter gourd was found to be 0.70 and 0.58 respectively while in snake gourd it was 0.75 and 0.71 respectively which indicated the overutilization of the resources. In ash gourd and pumpkin, fertilizer was found to be the factor significantly influencing the seed yield with a value of 0.75 and 0.61 respectively indicating overutilization of the resource. The analysis of the constraints in seed production of the vegetables was done using Garrett ranking technique. The major constraint identified which limited the seed production in the selected vegetables in the area was climatic variability followed by the incidence of pests and diseases where mosaic was identified as the major disease and fruit fly as the major pest. The requirement of a higher isolation distance was also another factor that constrained the seed production of the selected vegetables in the study area. It can thus be concluded that the development of climate resilient and pest and disease tolerant varieties would help the farmers to reap higher benefits by overcoming the vagaries of weather and challenge of pests and diseases incidence. Also, the development of high yielding variety seeds should be taken up in order to reduce the use of hybrid seeds which are popular among the farmers currently and are relatively costlier, thus the cost of cultivation of vegetables could be brought down sizably.Item Comparative analysis of public distribution system in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh(Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture ,Vellayani, 2024-05-20) Dhanaswi Vasipally; Paul Lazarus, TThe present study “A Comparative Analysis of Public Distribution System in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh” was aimed to study the production and procurement of food grains in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh, analyze consumer satisfaction towards food grains distributed through the Public Distribution System (PDS) and study the constraints in the implementation of PDS. For the present study, a purposive cum random sampling technique was adopted. It was conducted in Tirur block of Malappuram district of Kerala state and Nellore rural of Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh state. The study used both primary and secondary data to achieve the objectives of the study. The primary data were gathered from respondents by personal interview technique using a well-structured schedule. A total of 240 respondents, 120 from Kerala state and 120 from Andhra Pradesh state were selected randomly from two grama panchayats of Tirur block and Nellore rural block. The secondary data on the area, production and productivity of food grains were obtained from the Department of Civil Supplies and Consumer Affairs of Government of Kerala and Consumer Affairs, Food and Civil Supplies of Government of Andhra Pradesh, Food Corporation of India and Supplyco. The data collected was analyzed to attain the stated objectives using Percentage analysis, Cross tabulations, Likert scaling technique, Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) and Garrett’s ranking technique. In rice, a higher growth rate was in area observed in Andhra Pradesh (1.00%) when compared to Kerala (0.99%). When compared to Andhra Pradesh, a higher growth rate in production of 1.03 per cent was observed in Kerala. The growth rate of productivity was 1.01 per cent in both Kerala and Andhra Pradesh respectively. On analysis, the study revealed that the majority of respondents belonged to the age group of 30- 50 years in both Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. The majority of the respondents in both Kerala (71.67%) and Andhra Pradesh (56.67%) were female. The majority of the respondents in both Kerala (81.67%) and Andhra Pradesh (80%) were married. About 46.67% and 60.83% of respondents were educated up to below SSLC in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Occupation status revealed that the majority of respondents (79.17%) family heads in Kerala were others i.e., housewives, working as private employees, etc., as well as in Andhra Pradesh (59.17%) family heads were having the occupation of employed for wages. The majority of the respondents (69.17%) had an annual income of (below 15,000) in Kerala and (46.67%) had an annual income of (25,000-1,00,000) in Andhra Pradesh. The majority of the respondents belonged to the Hindu religion in both Kerala (80%) and Andhra Pradesh (100%). Majority of the respondents belonged to OBC and SC in Kerala (72.5%) and Andhra Pradesh (35.83%) respectively. The majority of the respondents belonged to nuclear families with dependents in both Kerala (61.67%) and Andhra Pradesh (58.33%). Majority of the respondents had own houses in Kerala (97.5%) and Andhra Pradesh (94.17%). The majority of the respondents belonged to family size less than 4 in both Kerala (46.47%) and Andhra Pradesh (94.167%). The majority of the respondents had roofed houses in both Kerala (91.67%) and Andhra Pradesh (65%). The majority of the respondents belonged to pink cards and white cards in Kerala (41.67%) and Andhra Pradesh (100%) respectively. The average quantity of rice, wheat atta and sugar purchased by BPL cards in Kerala (20.61kg, 2.175 kg and 1 kg) is more when compared to Andhra Pradesh (19.37 kg, 1 kg and 0.5 kg). Major constraints faced by the respondents was improper functioning of the POS machine in Kerala with a Garrett score of 68.29 and shortage of food grains in Andhra Pradesh with a Garrett score of 71.29. Based on the findings the study recommended the following policy suggestions 1. To enhance overall satisfaction of E-POS, it is essential to improve service quality through staff training, internet connectivity and SMS messaging services, providing OTP whenever biometric identification failed. 2. The quality of food grains in both states has to be improved because only 35% of respondents felt that quality is good whereas majority were undecided. 3. Spreading awareness is essential among the public about the allocated ration according to the size of their families. 4. Adding coarse cereals such as jowar and ragi, along with pulses like redgram and green gram, to the poverty line basket is recommended, as the residents of some districts in Andhra Pradesh state like Rayalaseema region and some other districts favor these coarse cereals in their diet. 5. In Andhra Pradesh, redgram is distributed in some districts only it should be given for other districts also and need to be implemented in Kerala state. 6. Minor millets have to be procured in both states and sugar has to be procured in Andhra Pradesh. 7. An increase in the amounts of wheat flour and sugar is necessary, given that the current distribution levels through the PDS are insufficient to meet the demands of households. 8. In Kerala, Government will send SMS notifications to beneficiaries in advance and after purchase of food grains informing them about the availability of PDS supplies so it should implemented in Andhra Pradesh also so it can help recipients plan efficiently and minimize the need for repeated visits to Fair Price Shops. 9. There is a need to extend the operating days of Fair Price Shops in Andhra Pradesh because in Kerala shops will be open all the days except Sunday from 8am to 12 noon and 4pm to 7pm whereas in Andhra Pradesh first 15 days of the month only it will open. 10. A thorough evaluation of specific areas' requirements should be conducted based on cards, enabling the Public Distribution System (PDS) to guarantee a sufficient supply of essential commodities. 11. The government needs to buy more from its agencies and include small farmers to ensure fair prices and good returns on their investments. Strengthening the procurement network is essential for this purpose. 12. In Kerala, APL cards also issued whereas in Andhra Pradesh they are not issued so with some rules and regulations APL cards may be reintroduced in Andhra Pradesh. 13. In Andhra Pradesh, mobile dispensing unit (MDUs) for door delivery of ration supplies is implemented where as in Kerala it should be implemented so that old aged people will be benefited.