PhD Thesis
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Item Development of seedless watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb. Matsum. &Nakai) with improved fruit quality(College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025-12-17) Ansaba, V; Pradeep Kumar TWatermelon (Citrullus lanatus) is a globally important cucurbitaceous crop valued for its sweet taste and nutritional content. Traditional diploid varieties contain numerous hard seeds that reduce consumer appeal, leading to the development of seedless watermelons through triploid breeding. Seedless types are increasingly popular due to their convenience and enhanced nutritional qualities, including higher levels of lycopene, β-carotene, citrulline, and vitamin C. They are widely preferred in domestic and international markets, often commanding a price premium. However, existing triploid seedless watermelon hybrids very often produce fruits with low TSS, false seeds, and hollow heart, which affects the quality. In this context, the present study, entitled “Development of seedless watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai) with improved fruit quality,” was undertaken to develop superior quality triploid seedless watermelon hybrids and to assess the potential of diploid male lines in the development of triploid hybrids with improved fruit quality. The research work was carried out in three experiments, viz., introduction and evaluation of watermelon germplasm, development of triploid hybrids, and evaluation of F1 hybrids in the experimental field of the Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, over three consecutive years (2022 – 2025), from November to March. In the first experiment, thirty-eight watermelon genotypes collected from different parts of the country were evaluated for various biometric, qualitative, and biochemical traits to identify genotypes with superior quality, yield, and earliness. Analysis of variance revealed that all the characters studied exhibited significant variation among the genotypes. The narrow gap between phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variation (PCV and GCV) indicated that variability was mainly genetic, making the traits amenable to effective direct selection. High heritability coupled with moderate to high genetic advance as per cent of the mean (GAM) was observed for all traits, except days to first harvest and crop duration, indicating the predominance of additive gene action. Yield per plant showed significant positive correlations with fruit polar diameter (0.690), average fruit weight (0.639), length of main vine (0.473), duration of crop (0.388), fruits per plant (0.380), and fruit equatorial diameter (0.377), while it showed significant negative correlations with days to first male flower anthesis (-0.570), days to first female flower anthesis (-0.465), and node at which first female flower emerged (-0.349). Path analysis revealed that duration of the crop (0.339) had the highest direct positive effect on yield per plant, followed by fruit polar diameter (0.289), average fruit weight (0.195), fruit equatorial diameter (0.189), fruits per plant (0.132), and length of main vine (0.0.067). Twenty superior diploid watermelon genotypes were identified through cumulative scoring for yield and quality traits, including TSS, total sugars, pulp firmness, Vitamin C, citrulline, earliness, and yield per plant. The lines, such as AHW/BR-22 (T21), CL-17 (T12), Arka Shyama (T1), AHW/BR-43 (T27), Crimson Sweet (T10), Arka Manik (T4), CL-19 (T14), CL-9 (T30), CL-12 (T33), Arka Muthu (T8), CL-8 (T29), AHW/BR-40 (T26), CL-14 (T35), CL-10 (T31), AHW/BR-37 (T25), AHW/BR-25 (T23), CL-12 (T32), Asahi Yamato (T6), CL-7 (T28), and CL-6 (T11), showed desirable combinations of quality and productivity and were identified as promising male parents for triploid hybrid development. In the second experiment, the identified diploid parents were crossed with the stable tetraploid female line, KAU-CL-TETRA-1, developed by Kerala Agricultural University in a top cross fashion. The highest fruit set percentage (85 %) and number of seeds per fruit (291.60) were observed in the top cross C9 (KAU-CL-TETRA-1 × CL-17). In the third experiment, twenty newly developed triploid F1 hybrids, along with two standard checks (Shonima and Swarna) and all the parental lines (the tetraploid female line, KAU-CL-TETRA-1, and the diploid male lines of hybrids and checks) used in the breeding programme, were evaluated in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences among the F1 hybrids and parents for all the biometric and biochemical traits observed. The analysis of general combining ability (GCA) effects for biometric and biochemical traits revealed significant variation among parental genotypes. The diploid lines Arka Shyama, CL-17, AHW/BR-22, AHW/BR-43, Arka Manik, Crimson Sweet, and Arka Muthu were identified as good general combiners for various fruit quality and yield traits. Heterosis values were estimated over mid-parent, better parent, and standard checks, Shonima and Swarna. The triploid seedless hybrids KAU-CL-TETRA-1 × Arka Shyama, KAU-CL-TETRA-1 × CL-17 (orange fleshed), KAU-CL-TETRA-1 × Arka Muthu, KAU-CL-TETRA-1 × AHW/BR-43, KAU-CL-TETRA-1 × Crimson Sweet, KAU-CL-TETRA-1 × AHW/BR-22, KAU-CL-TETRA-1 × Arka Manik, and KAU CL-TETRA-1 × AHW/BR-37 were found to have superior performance over the standard checks across multiple desirable quality traits. These hybrids also expressed low physiological abnormalities. The study also revealed that pollen parent variation significantly influenced the flesh colour expression in triploid hybrids, underscoring the paternal role in carotenoid accumulation and pigmentation. The orange and yellow colour of male parents was found to have a dominant effect on the red flesh of the tetraploid female line. Notably, the development of the first orange-fleshed seedless triploid hybrid (KAU-CL-TETRA 1 × CL–17) from the public sector in India marks a pioneering achievement. The study highlights the potential of triploid seedless watermelon hybrids in combining seedlessness with improved fruit quality and enhanced nutritional attributes. These findings lay a foundation for the commercial exploitation of hybrid vigour and emphasize the need for replicated and multilocational testing. The performance of these hybrids under protected cultivation needs to be evaluated. The potential of diploid pollinizers on these newly developed sterile triploid watermelon hybrids warrants further study.Item Enhancing nutrient use efficiency in lowland rice using beneficial root endophytic fungus Piriformnospora indica(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2025-12-30) Adarsh S; Ameena MThe study entitled ‘Enhancing nutrient use efficiency in lowland rice using beneficial root endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica’ was conducted at the Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2019-2025. The objectives of the study were to standardise a suitable growing medium for the colonisation of P. indica in rice seedlings and to evaluate the performance of P. indica colonised rice under varying NPK levels in both pot and field conditions. The investigation comprised three experiments, each conducted using the rice variety Uma. The first experiment on ‘Standardisation of growth media for P. indica colonisation of rice seedlings’ was conducted as a lab study at the Department of Plant Pathology to standardise a growing medium for colonisation of P. indica in rice. The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design with eight treatments replicated nine times. The treatments were: T1 [Paddy soil (PS): FYM: vermicompost (VC) in 1:1:1 (v/v) with P. indica (+Pi)], T2 [PS: FYM:VC in 1:1:1 without Pi (-Pi)], T3 [PS: FYM: neem cake(NC)in 1:1:1 + Pi], T4 [PS: FYM:NC in 1:1:1 - Pi], T5 [PS: FYM: coir pith compost (CPC) in 1:1:1 + Pi], T6 [PS: FYM: CPC in 1:1:1 - Pi], T7 [PS: FYM:VC:NC: PC in 1:1:1:1:1 + Pi] and T8 [PS:FYM:VC:NC:CPC in 1:1:1:1:1-Pi]. The sterilized medium prepared as specified, was inoculated with fungal broth (10 g mycelia per 100 g medium), and sown with surface-sterilized seeds to assess the growth and colonization. Results revealed that, T5 resulted in the highest germination percentage (92.28), dry matter production (19.12 mg per plant), vigour index-1 (1953.67), root volume (0.15 cm³ per plant), root dry weight (10.29 mg per plant), and root colonisation efficiency (92.70 %) at 14 days after sowing. Based on the growth and colonisation potential, the substrate comprising equal proportions of PS, FYM, and CPC was identified as the promising for mass colonisation of P. indica in rice seedlings. The second experiment on ‘Response of P. indica colonised rice to various NPK levels’ (pot culture) was laid out in CRD (factorial) with five nutrient levels and two types of colonization (2) replicated thrice (10 treatment combinations) with seven pots per replication. The treatments comprised of T1 [100% NPK + Pi], T2 [75% NPK+Pi], T3 [50% NPK+Pi], T4 [25% NPK+Pi], T5: [0% NPK+Pi], T6 [100% NPK–Pi], T7 [75% NPK–Pi], T8 [50% NPK–Pi], T9 [25% NPK–Pi], and T10 [0% NPK-Pi (Absolute control]. Rice was raised as per KAU POP recommendations. Colonisation at 100% NPK resulted in the tallest plants and the highest dry matter production at harvest (37.79 g per plant). However, the number of productive tillers per plant under 100% NPK + Pi was comparable to T2, which in turn was on par with 100% NPK - Pi for productive tillers, grain yield, and straw yield per plant. 100% NPK + Pi showed superior values for major root parameters. However, 75% NPK+ Pi were statistically on par with non-colonised plants at 100% NPK for root length, root volume, number of root branches, and root-shoot ratio. Colonisation and nutrient levels had significant influence on physiological parameters of rice. Malondialdehyde (MDA) content was lower in colonized plants at 100 % NPK. However, the highest superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase were recorded in 75% NPK+ Pi and on par with 100% NPK. The soil chemical analysis revealed the significant influence of colonisation with 100% NPK + Pi recording higher available N and P and plant P uptake which were comparable to 75% NPK + Pi. The three promising nutrient levels of pot experiment viz., 100,75 and 50% NPK with and without the endophyte along with absolute controls were taken for the field experiment. The third experiment on ‘Evaluating the field performance of P. indica colonised rice to various nutrient levels’ was laid out in RBD (factorial) with four nutrient levels and two types of colonization replicated thrice. The treatment combinations were T1 [100% NPK+Pi], T2 [75% NPK+ Pi], T3 [50% NPK+Pi], T4 [0% NPK+Pi], T5 [100% NPK–Pi], T6 [75% NPK–Pi], T7 [50% NPK–Pi], and T8 [0% NPK-Pi]. The crop of rice was raised as per KAU POP recommendations. Among the yield parameters, 100% NPK +Pi resulted in the highest yield attributes. However, performance of 75% NPK +Pi was comparable to KAU POP with respect to yield attributes at both locations. A pooled grain yield of 6.24 t ha⁻¹ was obtained with 100% NPK + Pi followed by 75% NPK + Pi (5.27 t ha⁻¹). Regarding root parameters, root length (37.90 cm) and root dry weight (10.05 g) were superior in colonised plants at 100% NPK followed by 75% NPK+Pi at 45 DAT. Colonisation and nutrient levels had their significance on physiological parameters. The nutrient use efficiency parameters of rice were significantly influenced and Pi + 100% NPK resulted in superior agronomic efficiency (AE) of N, P and K; apparent recovery efficiency (ARE) of N and K; physiological efficiency (PE) of N and K; and partial factor productivity (PFP) of N and P for both locations. Economic analysis revealed that the net income and benefit cost ratio were the highest in 100% NPK +Pi for both locations whereas 75% NPK +Pi was profitable than 100% NPK -Pi in both locations. The study identified a growth medium comprising equal proportions of paddy soil, farmyard manure, and coir pith compost as the most effective one for colonising P. indica in rice, based on growth and colonisation efficiency. Field evaluation of seedlings raised in this medium, supplied with NPK as per KAU POP recommendations, showed the highest overall performance in terms of growth and yield. However, the yield of colonized plants receiving 75 per cent of the recommended NPK was on par with non-colonised plants receiving full NPK. Based on the above findings, it could be inferred that P. indica colonization can facilitate 25 per cent reduction in chemical fertilizer use without compromising the productivity of transplanted lowland rice during summer.Item Yield performance and stress responses of sorghum(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2025-10-23) Swathy, A H; Usha, C ThomasClimate change has emerged as one of the most important global environment issues. Rising CO2 and temperature, changing rainfall patterns, and an increase in the frequency and duration of heat stress and water stress are all effects of climate change. Sorghum being a C4 plant with increased photosynthetic efficiency and abiotic stress tolerance, is a key crop in semi-arid tropical regions. Assessing the impact of climate change on sorghum productivity is crucial for addressing future food security challenges. This PhD project aimed to assess yield performance, response to water and heat stress in sorghum. In the first part of the project (chapter 2), twenty grain sorghum varieties were evaluated for the yield performance and variations in plant and leaf morphology. In the second part (Chapter 3), four sorghum genotypes including two grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ‘Farfara’ and Sorghum sudenense) and two wild sorghum (Sorghum bulbosum and Sorghum macrospermum) genotypes were grown focusing on studying the responses of these genotypes under water stress and heat stress conditions. In the third part (chapter 4), a large population of sorghum genotypes with different aquaporin alleles were grown to study the link between stomatal anatomy and kinetics and their relationship with water use efficiency under water stress. The first experiment was carried out in field conditions at College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Kerala, India. The second and third experiments were carried out in potted plants grown in the glasshouse at Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Australia. The first experiment revealed significant variations in growth and yield attributes among different sorghum varieties at various stages of development. CSV 17 performed exceptionally well across a variety of measures. It showed significantly higher grain yield, early flowering, and a shorter time to maturity, and higher harvest index compared to other varieties. CSV 20 demonstrated impressive economic performance, with the highest net returns per hectare and a remarkable benefit-cost ratio due to its significantly higher stover yield. In terms of leaf area index (LAI) and leaf area duration (LAD) variety CSV36 performed better. In second experiment S. bicolor ‘Farfara’ exceled in maintaining high intrinsic water use efficiency (iWUE) and quantum yield of photosystem II (ΦPSII) under water stress, while S. bulbosum excelled by maintaining carbon assimilation rate (An) and stomatal conductance (gs). In third experiment we observed a large variation in stomatal kinetics and their related dynamic water use efficiency and only stomatal opening speed (kopen) was found to be affected by water stress among other stomatal traits. The results of this research will provide valuable data for breeding programs focused on creating new sorghum varietiesItem Climate change impact on operation policy and performance indices of a reservoir using machine learning techniques(Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, 2025-11-22) Vinnakota Yesubabu; Anu VarugheseWater resource systems play a major role in human wellbeing. The hydrologic changes resulting from climate change will affect the planning, design, and operation of water resource systems. Developing water schemes based on present conditions without considering possible future changes could increase water resource pressure in the future period. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to consider these changes in the future design and management of water supply systems. To comprehend the impact of climate change on water resource management, a comprehensive modelling framework that considered both hydrological responses and reservoir operation was indispensable. In this regard, Malampuzha reservoir system in Palakkad district of Kerala was selected to evaluate the impact of climate change on reservoir and its performance. To select the suitable climate model for the study, the performance of 15 CMIP6 GCMs in precipitation, maximum and minimum temperature was compared to the observed data of Malampuzha for the period 1990-2014 with the help of Compromise Programming (CP) that involves metrics such as R2, PBIAS, NSE and NRMSE. The results of the CP analyses of the statistical metrics suggests that CNRM-CN6-1 model for precipitation and MRI-ESM2-0 model for maximum and minimum temperature are the suitable models for Malampuzha region. Different bias correction techniques were applied to improve the raw predictions of GCMs. Power Transformation (PT) for precipitation and Variance Scaling (VS) technique for temperature has shown superiority over other techniques. Three future scenarios were considered in this study from CMIP6 Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP126, SSP245 and SSP585). Selected bias correction techniques were applied to the future period to get bias corrected future climate variables. Rainfall-runoff modelling was chosen to predict reservoir inflow. Three hydrological models (IHACRES, SWAT and HECHMS) and Machine Learning (ML) models such as ANN, SVM, RF, and Wavelet coupled models were compared and Wavelet coupled RF (WRF) model was selected because of its greater accuracy and was used to simulate future reservoir inflow under different SSPs. CROPWAT model was used to estimate the irrigation water requirement for baseline and future periods. Land use change analysis of Malampuzha reservoir command area was done with the help of MOLUSE plugin of QGIS. Optimization program was developed by considering all the necessary constraints with the objective of minimizing squared relative deficiency in water allocation. Optimal water allocation was derived from the developed optimization technique using genetic algorithm for baseline and future periods. Reservoir performance indices such as Reliability, Vulnerability, resiliency and sustainability were calculated and compared for both timelines. Climate change impact on reservoir performance is evaluated. Selected GCM models predicted an increase in average annual maximum temperature (from 0.23oC in near future to 3.26oC in far future), an increase in average annual minimum temperature (from 0.62oC in near future to 3.12oC in far future) and decrease in average annual precipitation (2.73% in near future to 10.89% in far future) in the future compared with the base period. The LULC changes indicate a shift towards urbanization and plantation expansion, with a concurrent decline in agricultural lands (2425 ha (14%) reduction by the end of the century) and water bodies. Because of an increase in crop water demand of 11.7% and decrease in reservoir inflow of 27.3%, the amount of water allocation under optimal reservoir management conditions was less than the demand. The command area water demand will not be met by the reservoir for far futures of SSP245 and SSP585 scenarios because of more increase in temperature (3.26oC) and erratic behavior of precipitation which indicates the impact of climate change. A suitable optimization technique using genetic algorithm was developed which can be used for deriving the best operation policy for the Malampuzha reservoir in future. The observed decline in reliability and resiliency along with a notable increase in vulnerability from 0.028% to 9.47%, emphasizes the substantial challenges that climate change imposes on reservoir operation. These findings highlight the urgent requirement of climate-resilient management strategies to ensure the long-term sustainability of reservoir in the far future.Item Development of micropropagation protocols for aquascape plants(Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2025-05-30) Greeshma Baby; Rafeekher, MThe thesis work entitled “Development of micropropagation protocols for aquascape plants” was carried out at Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2022-2024. The study was conducted to standardize in vitro propagation protocol for three aquascape plants Hydrocotyle verticillata, Rotala wallichii, and Echinodorus grisebachii using stem node explants. The study comprised of five experiments. The first experiment was to standardize surface sterilization of explants; explants of three plants were separately treated with mercuric chloride in concentrations (0.08 %, 0.1 %) for durations (5 minutes, 7 minutes), mercuric chloride (0.03 %, 0.05 %) for durations (5 minutes) and sodium hypochlorite (1 %, 1.5 %) for durations (10 minutes, 15 minutes). The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design consisting of eleven treatment combinations along with control (distilled water) with three replications and carried out separately for three plants. In Hydrocotyle verticillata 0.08% HgCl₂ for 7 minutes was the best treatment resulted in maximum survival with no contamination. In Rotala wallichii 0.03 % HgCl₂, 5 minutes was most effective with no contamination and maximum survival. In Echinodorus grisebachii 0.05 % HgCl₂, 5 minutes was the best surface sterilization treatment with maximum survival and no contamination. The second experiment was to standardize tissue culture medium for culture establishment and shoot induction. The explants were inoculated in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium and half-strength Murashige and Skoog (1/2 MS) medium, with different combinations of growth regulators, namely BAP (0, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0) mg L⁻¹, NAA (0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5) mg L⁻¹, and Kinetin (0, 1, 3, 5) mg L⁻¹. The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design with twenty-six treatment combinations and three replications. In Hydrocotyle verticillata, MS +1.5 mg L-1 BAP was found to be the best in all shoot initiation parameters. MS + 2 mg L-1 BAP was found to be best shoot initiation medium in Rotala wallichii and Echinodorus grisebachii. Third experiment was to standardize the rooting medium. Explants were inoculated in different combinations of IBA (0, 1, 3, 5) mg L-1 and IAA (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5) mg L-1. The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design with fourteen treatment combinations and three replications. The Best rooting medium in Hydrocotyle verticillata and Rotala wallichii was ½ MS + 1.0 mg L-1IBA with maximum root initiation percentage and rapid root emergence. In Echinodorus grisebachii ½ MS + 3.0 mg L-1 IBA was the best. Fourth experiment was to standardize sucrose concentration for both shooting and rooting medium. The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design with eight treatments each for shooting and rooting medium. Explants were inoculated in best shooting and rooting medium along with different sucrose concentrations (10, 20, and 30) g L-1. For Hydrocotyle verticillata, among various sucrose concentrations tested, 1.5 mg L-1 BAP medium along with 30 g L-1sucrose was found to be most effective for enhancing all vegetative attributes, including shoot initiation, elongation, and leaf production. Additionally, the best rooting response was achieved in half strength MS with 1 mg L-1IBA and 30 g L 1sucrose, resulted in maximum root initiation. The combination of 30 g L-1sucrose with MS medium containing 2 mg L-1 BAP was the most effective for promoting shoot initiation, elongation, and leaf formation in Rotala wallichii and maximum root initiation was obtained in half strength MS medium with 1 mg L-1 IBA and 30 g L-1 sucrose. In Echinodorus grisebachii, supplementation of MS medium with 2 mg L-1 BAP and 30 g L-1 sucrose significantly enhanced shoot initiation, elongation, and leaf production and maximum rooting response was observed in half-strength MS medium enriched with 3 mg L-1 IBA and 30 g L 1sucrose. The fifth experiment was to standardize hardening medium. Soil, aqua soil, LECA pebbles, sand, gravel and coco fiber were used in this experiment. These substrates were filled in net pots and kept inside containers filled with water for hardening. The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design consisting of eight treatments with five replications. Among these aqua soil proved to be the most effective medium for hardening in all three plants. The protocols for Hydrocotyle verticillata, Rotala wallichii, and Echinodorus grisebachii were standardized. For Hydrocotyle verticillata, the shoot initiation medium was 1.5 mg L-1 BAP, rooting with ½ MS + 1.0 mg L-1 IBA, 30 g L-1 sucrose, and aqua soil as the hardening substrate. In Rotala wallichii, 2 mg L-1 BAP for shoot initiation, rooting with ½ MS + 1.0 mg L-1 IBA, 30 g L-1 sucrose, and aqua soil for hardening. For Echinodorus grisebachii, shoot initiation medium was 2 mg L-1 BAP, rooting with ½ MS + 3.0 mg L-1 IBA, 30 g L-1 sucrose, and aqua soil as the substrate for hardening.Item Process Optimisation and Quality evaluation of rice wine(Department of Community Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025-12-20) Riya K Zacharia; Aneena, E RRice wine is globally consumed alcoholic beverage, particularly in Asian countries and several regions of India. Beyond its cultural significance, rice wine serves as a vital medium for value addition in agriculture, effectively transforming surplus grain into a premium product with an extended shelf life. Rice wine production offers high economic returns and is highly remunerative. However, the potential of rice varieties specific to Kerala for use in wine production has not been explored. In the present study, entitled “Process optimisation and quality evaluation of rice wine”, Kerala white rice variety Ptb 47 (Neeraja) was selected to optimise fermentation conditions for rice wine production and quality evaluation of the developed wines. Fermentation was conducted using commercially available baker’s yeast and pure yeast strain (MTCC 2633). The various levels of inoculum concentration (1 - 5%), sugar content (0 - 40%) and water content (30 -70%) were optimised using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with twenty runs across 7th, 14th, 21th, 28th and 35th days of fermentation. The effects of these variables on responses such as total score of organoleptic evaluation and physicochemical properties, including alcohol content, pH, total soluble solids, total sugar, clarity and wine yield were analyzed. A comparative analysis of these optimized conditions and their effects on total scores of organoleptic evaluation and physicochemical qualities across different fermentation days was conducted and found that the most suitable fermentation duration is 21 days for rice wine prepared using baker's yeast as well as for rice wine prepared with a pure strain. The optimal points for process optimisation of rice wine prepared using baker’s yeast were inoculum concentration of 3.43 %, sugar content of 40 % and water content of 67.27%. The responses were observed as total score of 17.2, alcohol content of 14.2 %, pH of 3.03, TSS of 12.84°B, clarity of 0.48A, total sugar of 5.75 % and wine yield of 48.75 %. Similarly, rice wine prepared using pure strain were obtained optimal values as inoculum concentration of 3.38%, sugar content of 38.92 % and water content of 63.16 %. The responses were observed as total score of 17.15, alcohol content of 12.5 %, pH of 3.12, TSS of 15.26°B, clarity of 0.48A, total sugar of7.12 % and wine yield of 48.58 %. Hence these two treatments were selected for further studies. The nutritional qualities like, total sugar content of the rice wine prepared with the pure strain was 7.12%, which was slightly higher than the 5.75% observed in the rice wine produced with baker’s yeast. Similarly, the reducing sugar content was 5.1% in the pure strain fermentation, compared to 3.6% in the baker’s yeast treatment. The protein content was determined to be 1.63% in rice wine prepared using the pure yeast strain, which was comparatively higher than the 1.40% observed in rice wine fermented with baker’s yeast. The energy value was found to be 107.07 Kcal/100 ml in the baker’s yeast treatment, exceeding the 104.02 Kcal/100 ml recorded for rice wine prepared with pure strain. The mineral composition of the rice wines was also assessed and the results highlight that rice wine produced with baker’s yeast generally exhibited slightly higher concentrations of minerals and similar trend were also observed in vitro mineral availability. It may due to the comparatively higher acidity and alcohol content in wine through improved solubilisation. Moderate scavenging activities were observed for the selected rice wines which is less than that of other white wines. GC–MS analysis of rice wine revealed presence of alcohols, esters and hydrocarbons, as key volatile compounds shaping its aromatic and chemical profile. LC–MS analysis of rice wine identified diverse non-volatile compounds, including peptides and bioactive derivatives, that affect its sensory and functional properties. The selected rice wines were stored in amber coloured bottles for the period of six months and storage studies showed good stability over the same period for both rice wines prepared using baker’s yeast and pure strain. Rice wines made with both baker’s yeast and pure strain showed increasing pH, slight rises in alcohol content and improved clarity. Total soluble solids, total sugars, total phenolic compounds and total flavonoids declined steadily over time in both treatments. Reduction in microbial colonies were also observed in both treatments. The cost of production of rice wine was in the range of ₹ 207.95/L and ₹ 216.71/L. The developed wines exhibited good organoleptic and physicochemical qualities, making them suitable for commercialisation. The developed wines demonstrated good nutritional qualities, a favourable volatile profile with moderate antioxidant activity and were also shelf stable. The utilisation of native rice varieties into wine production can unlock their economic potential and render previously underutilised varieties profitable.Item Precision farming techniques for tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.)(Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2025-05-20) Hasna, P M; Rafeekher, MA study entitled “Precision farming techniques for tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.)” was undertaken during 2022-2024 at Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The main objective of the study was standardization of manuring, drip irrigation, fertilizer levels, spacing and mulching in tuberose hybrid Arka Prajwal. The study consisted of two experiments. The first experiment on “Standardization of manuring, irrigation and fertilizer level in tuberose” was laid out in split-split plot design with 16 treatment combinations and replicated four times. The main plot treatments were two manures (M1-FYM and M2- Poultry manure), the subplot treatments were two levels of irrigation (I1- IW/CPE 1 and I2-IW/CPE 0.8) and the sub sub plot treatments were four levels of fertigation (F1- 75 per cent recommended dose of N and K, F2- 100 per cent recommended dose of N and K, F3- 125 per cent recommended dose of N and K and F4- half N and full K of recommended dose). Control plot was laid out based on conventional farming practices. FYM @ 30 t ha-1 and poultry manure based on nitrogen equivalence were applied. Soil test-based recommendation for fertigation was derived based on 100: 50: 50 kg ha-1 as per KAU POP. Full dose of phosphorus was applied at the time of land preparation. Urea and sulphate of potash were used as fertilizer source for fertigation. Observations were recorded on vegetative, floral, post-harvest characters, plant and soil nutrient content. Among manures, poultry manure recorded superior results as compared to FYM for most of the parameters that were studied. Levels of drip irrigation had no considerable effects on plant characters, however in consideration with moderate water usage irrigation at IW/CPE 0.8 can be recommended. Within different levels of fertigation, drip fertigation of ½ N and full K had given the best results. Application of higher dose of fertilizers had no remarkable effects over growth, yield and quality. Results revealed that combined effect of poultry manuring, drip irrigation and fertigation proved superior to their individual effects. Vegetative parameters viz., plant height, no. of leaves, leaf length, leaf breadth, leaf area and LAI were significantly improved in treatment M2I2F4 (poultry manure+ IW/ CPE 0.8+ ½ N and full K through fertigation). As far as floral characters are concerned, M2I2F4 had positive influence on early spike emergence, minimum days to first floret opening and 50% flowering. Quality attributes of spikes such as spike length, rachis length, girth of peduncle, number of florets per spikes and number of spikes per hill exhibited improvement under M2I2F4. This treatment also had positive influence on length, diameter and weight of florets and loose flower yield. Among post- harvest parameters, fresh weight, vase life, water uptake and concrete recovery also higher under M2I2F4. Hence application of poultry manure, irrigation at IW/ CPE 0.8 and ½ N and full K through fertigation can be recommended for improved growth, yield and quality of tuberose hybrid Arka Prajwal. Synergistic effect of organic manuring, drip irrigation and fertigation with water soluble fertilizers paved the way for effective and efficient utilization of water and nutrients by the plants, thereby resulting in better plant growth. The second experiment on “Standardization of spacing and mulching in tuberose” was laid out in split plot design with eight treatment combinations and each replicated four times. The main plot consisted of plastic mulching (P1- Mulched, P2- Non mulched) and sub plot consisted of four levels of spacing (S1- 20 cm × 15 cm, S2- 20 cm × 20 cm, S3- 20 cm × 25 cm, S4- 20 × 30 cm). The best treatment combination from experiment I were selected for conducting experiment II. The treatment combination P1S4 (plastic mulching + 20 × 30 cm spacing) exhibited superior performances across vegetative, floral and post-harvest characters. Plant and soil analysis also resulted in highest nutrient content in this treatment combination. Planting at wider spacing under plastic mulching can be recommended for improved growth, yield and quality of tuberose. Regarding economics of cultivation, the treatment combination P1S4 recorded highest BC ratio for loose flowers. However, for cut flowers, P1S1 (plastic mulching + 20 × 15 cm spacing) achieved the highest BC ratio, followed by P1S4. A precision farming package of “application of poultry manure @ 10.60 t ha-1 and full dose of phosphorous (30 kg ha-1) as basal at the time of land preparation, along with drip fertigation of ½ N and full K (35.50 kg N and K per ha) at IW/ CPE 0.8 and planting at a spacing of 20 × 30 cm under plastic mulching” can be recommended for improved vegetative, floral and post-harvest characters of tuberose hybrid ‘Arka Prajwal’. A semi-automatic fertigation system that can be controlled and monitored remotely using GSM technology has been developed based on the nutrient utilization model derived in terms of growth parameters of the crop as well as the nutrient content of soil and plant.Item Breeding for high parthenocarpic expression and improved fruit quality in cucumber (cucumis sativus L.)(Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2025-10-29) Athira, K S; Pradeepkumar, TCucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is a widely cultivated cucurbitaceous vegetable and traits like parthenocarpy and gynoecy boost productivity under protected conditions where pollinators are forbidden. Although parthenocarpic cucumber was introduced early in India, public-sector hybrid development remains limited. Kerala Agricultural University launched a breeding program in 2011, leading to the release of KPCH-1, a high-yielding, early-maturing, parthenocarpic hybrid with moderate disease resistance and a cluster-bearing habit, mostly confined to upper nodes. However, poor cluster formation at lower nodes and late-stage fruit deformities limit its potential vis-a-vis popular private sector hybrids. With only few public-sector options available, farmers are forced to rely on costly private hybrids. This highlights the need for improved public sector parthenocarpic hybrids for protected cultivation, prompting the present study on “Breeding for high parthenocarpic expression and improved fruit quality in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.)”. The study comprised of four experiments aimed at evaluating and identifying cucumber lines with high parthenocarpic expression and yield, developing F₁ hybrids through diallel crossing, assessing their mean performance, combining ability and heterosis and validating the reported SSR markers linked to parthenocarpy. In the first experiment, twelve gynoecious and parthenocarpic cucumber lines were evaluated, revealing significant variation for all traits except ovary length and crop duration. Among the genotypes evaluated, several stood out for specific agronomic and market-preferred traits. CS 134 was notable for its high fruit weight and lack of deformities, while CS 135 excelled in fruit number per plant, indicating strong yield potential. CS 136 demonstrated superiority across multiple parameters, including compact growth, high parthenocarpic fruit set, extended harvesting duration and top yield performance, making it a strong candidate for commercial cultivation and breeding. CS 138 showed early and compact fruiting traits. CS 140 was distinguished by its longer fruits, appealing for market preferences. CS 141 displayed excellence in fruit quality traits such as girth, flesh thickness, and TSS, along with ideal cluster fruiting and absence of deformities. CS 142 and CS 143 were among the earliest to reach harvest and showed favorable flesh quality and shelf-life traits. CS 144 was superior in early flowering and parthenocarpic expression. CS 145 also showed high sweetness levels, aligning with consumer preferences. Overall, CS 136 emerged as the most promising genotype for yield and adaptability under protected conditions, while others offered valuable traits for targeted improvement in breeding programs. High phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) and genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) were observed for traits such as node at which the first female flower emerged, node at which parthenocarpic expression occurred, parthenocarpic fruit set (%), parthenocarpic fruit expansion (%), number of fruits per plant, percentage of deformed fruits and physiological loss in weight, indicating a strong genetic influence and suggesting good potential for selection. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance as percent of mean was recorded for several key traits including node at which the first female flower emerged, node of parthenocarpic expression, parthenocarpic fruit set and expansion percentages, node at which clustered fruit appeared, number of fruits per cluster at middle nodes, fruit length, number of fruits per plant, percentage of deformed fruits, yield per plant, total soluble solids (TSS) and physiological loss in weight. These findings suggest that these traits are primarily governed by additive gene action and, therefore, selection for their improvement would be highly effective. In the correlation study, yield per plant was found significantly and positively correlated with parthenocarpic fruit set percentage, parthenocarpic fruit expansion percentage, node of clustered fruit appearance, number of fruits per plant and number of harvests. Path coefficient analysis revealed that several traits have a positive direct influence on fruit yield per plant. Key contributors included parthenocarpic fruit set, early flowering, fruit number, and fruit size characteristics. Traits that showed both strong positive correlations and direct effects on yield, such as parthenocarpic fruit set, fruit expansion, number of fruits, and frequency of harvest, are particularly promising for selection in cucumber breeding programs targeting improved productivity under protected cultivation. From the twelve gynoecious parthenocarpic lines evaluated, six best performing lines (CS 135, CS 136, CS 137, CS 141, CS 142 and CS 143) were selected as parents for diallel crossing programme based on selection index and the thirty F1 hybrids so developed were evaluated under naturally ventilated polyhouse conditions for various traits along with the parents and two commercial checks – KPCH -1 and Multistar. During the crossing programme, the application of silver thiosulphate (STS) successfully induced male flowers across all parental lines without causing significant variation in the timing of flower emergence or pollen viability. While these traits remained consistent, crossing efficiency and seed set varied notably among genotypes. Based on the general combining ability (GCA) effects for various traits, the parent CS 142 emerged as the best general combiner, exhibiting superior GCA for the maximum number of traits, i.e., eight traits. These include early flowering (days to first female flower anthesis and node at which first female flower emerged), reproductive efficiency (node at which parthenocarpic expression occurred and length of ovary), and fruit quality traits (fruit length and TSS), along with favorable performance in days to first harvest and number of fruits per cluster at upper nodes. This makes CS 142 a valuable parent in cucumber breeding for improving earliness, parthenocarpy and fruit quality. Based on the specific combining ability (SCA) effects observed across traits, the top five hybrids identified were CS 143 × CS 137, CS 135 × CS 141, CS 143 × CS 136, CS 142 × CS 136, and CS 135 × CS 142. The hybrid CS 143 × CS 137 exhibited superior performance for average fruit weight, fruit length, fruit girth, flesh thickness, number of fruits per plant, and total soluble solids, indicating excellent potential for fruit quality and productivity. CS 135 × CS 141 excelled in parthenocarpic fruit set and expansion, fruit length and girth, number of fruits per plant, yield per plant and TSS, making it a strong candidate for yield enhancement through parthenocarpy. CS 143 × CS 136 demonstrated high SCA for parthenocarpic traits, number of harvests, yield per plant, and TSS. CS 142 × CS 136 was notable for earliness, favorable average fruit weight and girth, higher TSS, and lower physiological loss in weight while CS 135 × CS 142 was superior in internodal length, ovary length, fruit girth, TSS and physiological loss in weight. Based on the analysis of mean performance across key traits, the hybrid CS 141 × CS 142 emerged as the most outstanding performer, ranking first with superiority in six traits, including days to first female flower anthesis, node at which the first female flower emerged, node of parthenocarpic expression, flesh thickness, days to first harvest and lowest percentage of deformed fruits. Following this, CS 143 × CS 136 ranked second, excelling in four important traits including parthenocarpic fruit set percentage, fruit expansion percentage, number of fruits per plant and yield per plant, highlighting its strong potential for enhancing both parthenocarpic fruit setting efficiency and yield. Several hybrids exhibited high levels of heterosis for yield and associated traits, highlighting their potential for commercial cultivation under protected environments. Five SSR markers previously linked to parthenocarpy in cucumber (SSR01148, SSR01012, SSR10476, SSR19174, and SSR16226) were tested for validation, but four showed no amplification while SSR10476 lacked polymorphism between parthenocarpic and non-parthenocarpic lines, indicating their ineffectiveness in the current genetic background. The top four hybrids, based on their performance for various traits, high GCA estimates of their parents, high SCA estimates and pioneer heterotic performance were CS 143 × CS 136, CS 141 × CS 142, CS 141 × CS 135 and CS 135 × CS 141. This study also aimed to address key limitations of the commercial hybrid KPCH-1, including limited cluster-bearing at lower nodes and fruit deformities. Among the 30 hybrids developed, CS 137 × CS 141 and CS 142 × CS 141 showed earlier expression of clustered fruits compared to KPCH-1 and hybrids such as CS 137 × CS 136, CS 141 × CS 142, and CS 141 × CS 143 exhibited complete absence of fruit deformities, while several others showed marked reduction. Parthenocarpic fruit set and fruit expansion percentages, showing strong positive correlations, high heritability and direct effects on yield, emerged as key selection criteria in developing high-yielding parthenocarpic cucumber hybrids for protected cultivation.Item Rice based integrated farming systems: An exploratory analysis(Department of Agricultural Extension, COA Vellanikkara, 2026-01-06) Marneni Divya Sree; Mercykutty M JIn developing economies like India, achieving pro-poor growth and economic development depends on flourishing of agricultural sector and improved farmer incomes. The limited operational landholding sizes in Telangana (1 ha) and Kerala (0.18 ha), as per the Agricultural Census 2015-16, restrict horizontal expansion, making vertical intensification through efficient resource use essential. Integrated Farming System (IFS) is a practical strategy, combining complementary enterprises to ensure year-round income, employment, and food and nutritional security. With rice as the dominant crop, rice-based IFS have considerable importance, as these systems utilize the rice ecosystem efficiently and integrate fisheries, livestock, poultry, horticulture and other enterprises. This integration helps reduce production risk, promote resource recycling, and sustain livelihoods. Telangana is the leading producer of rice, and the state has the highest average rice productivity of about 6,338 kg/ha., surpassing the national average. But the semi- arid nature necessitates drought tolerant crops and sustainable farming practices such as Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) to maintain productivity and economic viability. Rice the staple food crop of Kerala is cultivated in limited land and the production is decreasing. Palakkad (AEU 10) is the granary of Kerala and is comprised of fertile lands that supports integration of various components to maximize productivity, year- round income and maintain ecological balance. Kuttanad is known as the rice bowl of Kerala that has unique paddy cultivation below Mean Sea Level (MSL), rice based IFS plays a very important role to ensure profitability, food security and resilience against natural hazards. Analyzing the rice based IFS models adopted by farmers provides insights into their structure and performance, which can inform better, location-specific rice based IFS models that maximize productivity, profitability, and resilience. With this background, a study on “Rice based Integrated Farming Systems: An exploratory analysis” was taken up to study the performance of selected rice-based Integrated Farming Systems in Telangana and Kerala, delineate the factors affecting the performance of rice based IFS, assess the perceived environmental benefits and to evolve strategies for improving the rice based IFS. From the three agro-climatic zones of Telangana, one district each was selected i.e. Jagityal from North zone, Nalgonda from South zone and Khammam from Central zone. From each selected district, three mandals were chosen, and from each chosen mandal, two villages were selected. Ten farmers with rice-based integrated farms were randomly selected from each village, resulting in a total of 180 farmers (60 per district). Also, ten extension personnel and ten agricultural scientists were selected from each zone (30 + 30), totaling the sample to 240 (180 farmers + 30 extension personnel + 30 scientists) from Telangana. In Kerala, two major rice-growing tracts i.e., the Agro Ecological Unit Kuttanad (AEU 4) and Palakkad (AEU 10) were selected. From Kuttanad, the gram panchayaths Kumarakom and Kainakary were chosen, and from Palakkad, Muthuthala and Thrithala were selected. Fifteen farmers with rice-based integrated farms were chosen from each panchayath, giving a total of 60 farmers. Additionally, 30 extension personnel and 30 agricultural scientists were included as respondents, bringing the Kerala sample to 120 (60 farmers + 30 extension personnel + 30 scientists). Thus, the total sample size of Telangana and Kerala for the study was 360 respondents. More than half (53.33 %) of Jagityal and Nalgonda farmers, 70.00 percent of Khammam farmers, 66.67 percent of Palakkad farmers, and 46.67 percent of Kuttanad farmers were in medium level of perceived efficiency of rice based IFS in terms of productivity, profitability and employment generation. The overall trend indicates that the farmers were having medium perception about the efficiency of rice based IFS. Palakkad farmers average mean value is 4.24 which is higher than the other region farmers, followed by Khammam with average mean value of 4.09. The farmers from Palakkad and Khammam exhibited higher levels of perceived efficiency. The greater enterprise diversification and higher net returns from the rice based IFS positioned farmers from those regions to have higher perceptions. Farmers of Kuttanad recorded lower perception levels due to limited diversification and environmental constraints such as frequent flooding, soil salinity, and acidity. While farmers of Nalgonda had lower awareness about enterprise diversification. Performance analysis using the Performance Analysis Index (PAI), considering economic and social dimensions was developed. The PAI revealed that in all the regions the farms were performing better socially than economically. The detailed region wise analysis confirmed that Khammam district in Telangana had the highest performance score of 46.96, followed by Jagityal and Nalgonda at 40.12 and 35.48, respectively. In Kerala, Palakkad outperformed with a score of 53.64, while Kuttanad scored 34.35. The Classification and Regression Tree (CART) analysis classified the farms into high and low performing based on the performance mean score and identified net returns, livestock possession, social networks, members working on farm and off farm as the most influential performance indicators. In Jagityal, more than half i.e., 55.00 percent of the farms (Terminal Node (TN) 5, TN 6 and TN 7) were in low performing and 45.00 percent of the farms were classified as high performing (TN 8 and TN 9). A total of twenty-four rice based IFS models were delineated. The dominant models i.e. rice + other field crops + dairy + ox/bullock showed higher performance score with 52.40, followed by rice + other field crops + horticulture + dairy with 42.48. In rice + other field crops + dairy + ox/bullock model although the ox/bullock enterprise is not economically viable, the farmers continue to use these animals for agricultural operations due to their emotional attachment and adherence to traditional practices. At the same time, they complement animal power with mechanization and utilize animal waste to enhance soil fertility. Among Nalgonda farmers 68.00 percent of the farms (TN 6, TN 9, TN 10 and TN 11) were high performing and 32.00 percent of the farms were classified as low performing (TN 4 and TN 5). A total of twenty-three models were delineated. Out of the identified dominant models rice + other field crops + dairy + ox/bullock performed better with performance score of 42.57, followed by rice + dairy + poultry + small ruminants with 40.57, and rice + other field crops + dairy + poultry with 40.31. In Khammam the TN 6 and TN 7 together about 63.00 percent of the farms were high performers. Whereas TN 3 and TN 4 comprising of 37.00 percent of farms are classified as low performing. Fifteen models were identified in Khammam district, and among the predominant models rice + other field crops + horticulture + fodder + dairy + poultry showed high performance with 53.13 score, followed by rice + other field crops + horticulture + dairy + poultry + small ruminants (50.03), rice + other field crops + horticulture + fodder + dairy (47.89), rice + other field crops + horticulture + dairy + poultry (47.33). Altogether in Palakkad 43.33 percent of the farms were classified as high performers, and the remaining 56.67 percent were low performing farms. Thirteen models were identified, and the predominant models that exhibited high performance are rice + horticulture + dairy + goat + poultry + biogas + apiculture (64.59), rice + horticulture + fodder + dairy + poultry + fish (62.19), rice + other field crops + horticulture + dairy + poultry + biogas (57.11), rice + other field crops + horti + dairy + poultry (53.03), rice + horticulture + dairy + biogas (52.99), rice + horticulture + dairy + goat + poultry (52.97), rice + horticulture + dairy + poultry + fish + biogas + apiculture (52.69),rice + horticulture + dairy + poultry (50.18), rice + horticulture + dairy (47.83). Further in Kuttanad it is identified that 37.00 percent of the farms were high performing and 63.00 percent of the farms were classified as low performing. Out of the seventeen models identified in Kuttanad, rice-fish + horticulture + nutrition garden had high performance score of 41.38. The farmers of this model were having coconut plantations along the rice bunds ensuring higher returns. Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modelling (PLS SEM) identified key factors influencing rice based IFS performance. In Telangana, annual farm income, farm factors, and farmer factors significantly improved performance, and farmer factors also correlated positively with the use of communication channels. The PLS SEM of Kerala confirmed that communication channels, farm factors, and farmer factors all had a significant positive effect on performance, with farmer factors also enhancing communication channel utilization. This highlights the role of farmer attributes in driving rice based IFS outcomes. A scale to measure the perceived environmental benefits of rice based IFS was developed using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and PLS SEM. The developed scale was administered among the stakeholders (Farmers, extension personnel and scientists) of both the states. It showed that in all the groups of stakeholders, the largest share of individuals were in medium level. Scientists of both states exhibited higher mean in perception and lower standard deviation (SD) values, indicating less variability in their perceptions. In contrast, farmers showed lower mean in perception and higher SD values, which reflects greater variability. Extension personnel and scientists tend to have the most consistent scores. The comparison of mean indicates that the scientists (57.40) have higher perception than the other two groups, while extension personnel (54.32) are in middle ground and have very close mean to farmers (52.40). The reason could be that the extension workers perceptions align more closely with farmers due to their frequent interaction. The key strategies aimed at improving the efficiency and productivity of rice- based IFS in Telangana include promotion of diversified rice based IFS models, promoting improved breeds of livestock and improved scientific management practices. The better/high performing farms of each region are to be scientifically assessed, refined and promoted for large scale adoption. Providing agriculture input dealers with updated agronomic information can enhance their facilitating role beyond input supply, making them vital for technology transfer. Persuading farmer factors through education, extension, and supportive networks would lead to higher performance of the farms in the region. Promoting risk mitigation strategies like crop and livestock insurance plays a crucial role in protecting farmers from unexpected losses. Promotion of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPO’s) and other farmer organizations is essential for strengthening the collective power of farmers. Establishing village level cold storage facilities helps reduce post-harvest losses. Encouraging farmers, farm women and rural entrepreneurs to process and add value to perishable products. Promoting the adoption of scientific storage techniques. To ensure the long-term productivity, farmers need more short-term subsidies, so the government should provide sustained financial support, such as low-interest loans, and grants. The major approaches to strengthen the performance of rice-based IFS in Palakkad include encouraging the cultivation of short-duration rice varieties. Promoting organic rice cultivation and developing local branding initiatives. Establishing small- scale rice based IFS units at the panchayat level. Regular maintenance of minor irrigation systems. Encouraging soil test-based fertilizer application. Investing in post- harvest infrastructure such as cold storages, milk chilling units, and vegetable collection centers to minimize spoilage. Promoting small-scale, farmer-friendly machinery, facilitating the use of drones for pesticide spraying, fertilizer application. Farmers should be encouraged to adopt the alternate wetting and drying method in paddy cultivation. Developing farm tourism in Palakkad can create alternative income sources and strengthening of group dynamics. The major strategies for Kuttanad include effective utilization of waterlogged paddy fields for fish cultivation before or after the rice-growing season. Encouraging farmers to grow vegetables on large bunds and in grow bags or sacks ensures efficient space utilization and additional income generation. Promoting agro-tourism through traditional rice farming experiences. Integrating fruit crops along field boundaries and promoting mushroom cultivation. Recognizing the ecosystem benefits, the paddy production bonus can be enhanced to reward farmers for maintaining these ecological functions.Item Identification of superior genotypes for yield and quality in red gram[Cajanas cajan (L.)Millsp.] suitable for Kerala(Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2026-01-05) Shirsat Mahesh Santosh; Beena ThomasRed gram [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.], commonly known as pigeonpea, is an important tropical and subtropical legume valued for its edible seeds. It serves as both a green vegetable and a split pulse (‘dhal’), being a rich source of protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and essential amino acids such as lysine, methionine, and tryptophan. In combination with cereals, pigeonpea provides a nutritionally balanced diet and contributes to food security and sustainable smallholder farming systems. India is the largest producer of pigeonpea. It ranks second among pulses after chickpea, with major cultivation in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Gujarat. In Kerala, however, despite being an integral part of the diet, commercial cultivation of pigeonpea is meagre. Therefore, the present research entitled “Identification of superior genotypes for yield and quality in red gram [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] suitable for Kerala” was undertaken in the Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, during 2021-2025. In the first experiment, thirty genotypes originating from ICRISAT (Hyderabad), TNAU (Coimbatore), and IARI (New Delhi) were collected and evaluated in the field to study variability parameters and genetic divergence (D2). Analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences among genotypes for all 16 traits studied, indicating substantial genetic variability. The genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation (GCV and PCV) exhibited high values for traits such as the number of primary branches per plant, number of pods per plant, seed yield per plant, biological yield, and the content of total phenol, tannin, and methionine, indicating a strong potential for improvement through selection. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance as a percentage of the mean was observed for most traits, indicating the predominance of additive gene action, making direct selection effective. Correlation analysis revealed that seed yield per plant was positively and significantly associated with number of pods per plant, biological yield, harvest index, primary branches, and seeds per pod, while phenol content showed a significant negative correlation. Path analysis indicated that biological yield, flowering traits, and harvest index exerted strong positive direct effects on seed yield, whereas days to bud initiation and plant height contributed negatively. All thirty genotypes were assembled into six clusters using D² analysis. Cluster III had the highest number of genotypes (9), followed by cluster IV (5 genotypes), and clusters I, II, V, and VI each had one genotype. The highest intra-cluster distance was recorded in cluster IV and the lowest in cluster II, whereas the highest inter-cluster distance was observed between clusters I and VI, followed by clusters IV and V. Molecular diversity analysis among the 30 genotypes was conducted using 30 Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers. Of these, 14 were polymorphic, 9 were monomorphic, and 7 markers failed to amplify. The Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) values of polymorphic SSR markers ranged from 0.12 (ASSR 363) to 0.50 (ASSR 281). The lowest Jaccard’s similarity coefficient was observed between genotypes ICPL 300 and ICPL 22081 (0.167). UPGMA cluster analysis grouped all 30 pigeonpea genotypes into six clusters, with Cluster I being the largest (12 genotypes), followed by Cluster III (11 genotypes), Cluster V (3 genotypes), Cluster IV (2 genotypes), and Clusters II and VI with one genotype each. Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) confirmed the presence of considerable genetic diversity among the 30 red gram genotypes. Ten superior genotypes, viz., ICPL 11259, ICPL 11300, ICPL 11318, ICPL 11326, ICPL 20327, ICPL 22045, ICPL 22084, ICPL 22081, APK 1, and Pusa Arhar 16, were selected based on seed quality attributes and seed yield per plant. Phenological evaluation of these genotypes was conducted in the field for three seasons (Rabi, Summer, and Kharif). Seasonal evaluation revealed that seed yield per plant was highest during Kharif, though with high variability, whereas Rabi showed relatively stable but lower yields, and Summer provided balanced performance with moderate yield consistency. Among the ten genotypes, APK 1 and Pusa Arhar 16 consistently recorded high seed yield across all three seasons along with good quality traits and are suitable for cultivation in Kerala. Genotypes grouped in different clusters with maximum inter-cluster distances indicate high genetic diversity, which can be exploited in future breeding programmes to manifest heterosis and develop superior hybrids. Genotypes with high molecular diversity can serve as parental lines for making crosses with a broad genetic base, thereby enhancing the scope of genetic improvement.