PhD Thesis

Permanent URI for this collectionhttp://localhost:4000/handle/123456789/48

Browse

Now showing 1 - 20 of 995

Abiotic stress tolerance in native isolates of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Hypocreales :Cordycipitaceae)
(Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2024-07-22) Nimisha, T; KAU; Deepthy, K B
Environmental factors such as high temperature, low humidity and soil acidity often limit the biological control potential of the entomopathogenic fungus (EPF), Beauveria bassiana. Identifying abiotic stress-tolerant B. bassiana isolates represents a possible strategy to overcome this problem. Native isolates of EPF tend to adapt more to the environmental stress conditions in the locality than the exotic isolates, which are exposed to a different microclimate and microbiota. Thus, this study aimed at identification of the abiotic stress tolerant native isolates of B. bassiana and elucidation of the biochemical and molecular mechanism of stress tolerance. Survey was conducted in ten districts of Kerala, across different agroclimatic zones (159 locations). Soil samples as well as field infected cadavers were collected during the survey. The physicochemical properties of the soil samples were analysed to understand prevailing abiotic stress conditions in the area of sample collection, from which the entomopathogenic fungi isolated. For soil isolation of EPF insect bait method and serial dilution and plating method were followed. Beauveria bassiana was not obtained from any of these soil samples. However, out of the 12 field infected cadavers collected, three were infected with B. bassiana. Beauveria bassiana was identified based on the morphological characters and later confirmed by molecular characterization. Sequencing of the ITS region (550 bp) revealed genetic differences among the isolates. The sequences were submitted to NCBI GenBank (National Center for Biotechnology Information) and the accession numbers were generated (BTL1 - OP271760, BTL2 - OP290199 and PKDE - OP292066). A maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree was built, and the evolutionary relationship among the isolates were also studied. Beauveria bassiana isolates (BTL1, BTL2 and PKDE) were grouped in a single cluster confirming their genetic relationship. Bioassay against third instar nymphs of cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora Koch) revealed that at lower concentration of 105 spores/ml, only the PKDE isolate recorded cent percent mortality compared to other two native isolates as well as NBAIR (National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources) strain (Bb13). As the concentration of spore suspension increased to 107 spores/ml the PKDE and BTL2 isolates were on par with NBAIR strain in terms of LT50 values. The growth and biochemical parameters of the three native isolates of B. bassiana were studied under different abiotic stress conditions. The effects of temperature (28 - 40 oC), pH (2 - 6), salinity (0.5 - 2 M) and water stress induced by polyethylene glycol (PEG 10 - 45 %) on the growth of B. bassiana were assessed. Beauveria bassiana isolate PKDE (collected from Palakkad district) tolerated a temperature stress upto 40 oC. It also survived the extreme acidity (pH 2) and salinity (1.5 M) conditions. The B. bassiana isolate, PKDE was compatible with most of the commonly used insecticides viz., chlorantraniliprole, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and spinosad. Among the fungicides tested, hexaconazole and carbendazim completely inhibited the growth of all the three isolates, while copper oxychloride showed 89 per cent compatibility with the isolate PKDE. The PKDE isolate of B. bassiana isolated from Palakkad district has shown exceptional resistance to the effects of temperature and drought stresses. Hence, biochemical characterization of this isolate was performed to confirm their ability of stress tolerance. Significant levels of trehalose content were recorded on exposure to heat (40 oC) and drought stress (45 % PEG) (20.33 mg/g of mycelia and 20.43 mg/g of mycelia, respectively) in the multiple stress tolerant PKDE isolate. A significant activity of catalase and peroxidase was also observed in response to heat stress at 40 oC in PKDE isolate (0.0072 EU/min/mg protein and 0.0602 EU/min/g tissue weight respectively), while activity was not significant with respect to drought. In PKDE isolte the mannitol dehydrogenase (MTD) and mannitol -1-phosphate dehydrogenase (MPD) displayed significantly increased activity upon exposure to temperature stress of 40 oC (0.363 and 0.317 EU/ min/ mg protein respectively) and drought stress (0.289 and 0.364 EU/min/ mg protein respectively) induced by 45% polyethylene glycol concentration compared to the control. Field studies concluded that two sprays of B. bassiana (PKDE, BTL2 and NBAIR strain) at a spore concentration of 1x108 spores/ml at 10 days interval, suppressed the cowpea aphid incidence. No mortality of natural enemies (coccinellid beetles and spiders) was observed in the treated plots. The protein profiling of PKDE isolate under stress conditions and without stress (control) was carried out to identify the molecular basis of stress tolerance. The results revealed that there was over-expression of proteins at high-temperature stress, and the molecular weight of proteins ranged between 11-17, 35-48, 48-63 and 100- 135 kDa. The relationship between heat shock proteins and thermotolerance in fungal biocontrol agents suggests a new approach for improving entomopathogenicity by enhancing the expression of thermotolerance-related proteins in conidia. This can be achieved by identifying fungal isolates with greater thermotolerance or by optimising the components of substrate for the growth of fungi to produce more thermotolerant conidia. The nucleotide sequence analysis in the neutral trehalase gene (Bb Nth1) and high osmolarity glycerol gene (Hog), which are known to be associated with multiple stress tolerance, revealed that Bb Nth1gene sequence of the three native isolates of B. bassiana contains a coding sequence (CDS) of 2232 bp which codes for 743 amino acids and the hog gene consists of 1077 bp which codes for 358 amino acids. The polymorphism analysis in the Bb Nth1 gene revealed that seven single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the exon region and six SNPs in the intron region, in the BTL1 isolate. In the exon3 region of the BTL1 isolate one SNP was observed with G➔C transition and codon changed from GAG to GAC. The non-synonymous variation resulted in the substitution of glutamic acid to aspartic acid at 363rd position of amino acid sequence. In BTL2 isolate eight SNPs were found in the exon region and seven SNPs in the intron region. BTL2 isolate displayed two non-synonymous variations at the 363rd position (glutamic acid to aspartic acid substitution) and at 542th position (lysine to glutamic acid) of amino acid sequence. The second SNP observed in BTL2 isolate was with G➔A transition and codon changed from GAG to AAG. In the PKDE isolate, six SNPs were found in the exon region and none of which were non-synonymous variations. Only five SNPs were found in the intron region of PKDE isolate. Variant Effect Predictor software was used to determine the functional consequences of the observed SNPs. The two mutations observed in the Bb Nth1 gene resulted in a missense variant. The Protparam and HOPE software results also revealed that the mutation resulted in protein instability. While analysing the multiple sequence alignment of susceptible and multiple stress tolerant isolates, there was no non-synonymous variation in the Hog gene. The results of bioinformatics software such as Variant Effect Predictor and Protparam supported the above findings. The present study identified multiple stress tolerant isolate of B. bassiana (PKDE isolate) isolated from Palakkad district of Kerala which is safer to natural enemies and compatible with synthetic pesticides. This isolate may be successfully integrated as a microbial control agent in IPM programme.
Acaricide resistance in spider mites (Acari: Tetranychidae) Infesting major crops of Central Kerala
(Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara,, 2025-08-18) Penuballi Swathi; Haseena Bhaskar
Spider mites (Acari) inhabit a wide array of environments and pose significant threat to a variety of commercially grown vegetable crops and ornamental plants. Chemical management measures using synthetic acaricides remains the primary means of mite management, globally. However, the repeated use of chemical pesticides has led to the development of resistance in mite populations, including resistance to acaricides with novel modes of action, resulting in control failures. TetranychustruncatusEhara and Tetranychusgloveri Banks are the predominant spider mite pests on vegetable crops and ornamental plants in Kerala. Mite management in vegetable fields and horticultural nurseries of Kerala primarily relies on synthetic acaricides like spiromesifen, fenazaquin and diafenthiuron. Increased instances of control failures, despite the application of recommended doses of these acaricides, have recently been reported by the farmers and nursery owners. Sole dependence on acaricides for a prolonged period might have resulted in the reduced susceptibility of mite populations to commonly used acaricides. Hence, a study was carried out to investigate the susceptibility of the field populations of T. truncatus and T. gloveri to commonly used acaricides, the possible development of cross /multiple resistance and to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of resistance. Purposive sampling surveys were conducted across commercial horticultural nurseries, vegetable fields and tissue culture (TC) hardening units in central Kerala (Thrissur, Ernakulam, Palakkad and Malappuram) to collect spider mite populations. Isoline cultures of eight T. truncatus populations collected on marigold (Mg1Tr) and vegetable crops (Cp1Pt, Cu1Pt, Ok1Pt, Am2Pt, Am3Vt, Cp2Tv and Am4Tv), and nine T. gloveri populations collected on adenium (Ad1Rg and Ad2Sd), gerbera (Gr1Pt), dahlia (Da1Vt), anthurium (An1Bv) and tissue culture banana (Bn3Tr, Bn2Kn, Bn1Gn and Bn4Ak) were maintained in the laboratory with unique accession numbers. The laboratory maintained populations of T. truncatus (SST) for more than 10 years (>300 generations) and T. gloveri (SSO) for more than six years (>180 generations), without exposure to acaricides were designated as susceptible reference populations. The laboratory bioassay of T. truncatus with fenazaquin showed moderate levels of resistance in the populations on amaranthus (Am2Tr- 39.70 folds) and marigold (Mg1Tr- 25.60 folds) populations from Thrissur, cucumber from Pattambi (Cu1Pt- 12.90 folds) and amaranthus from Vyttila (Am3Vt- 10.50 folds). The other populations collected on amaranthus from Tavanur (Am4Tv) and on okra (Ok1Pt), and cowpea (Cp1Pt) from Pattambi, recorded low levels of resistance (RR 3.70- 7.90 folds). Among the T. gloveri populations, adenium population from National Rose Garden, Thrissur (Ad1Rg- 57.20 folds) and TC banana population from Kannara (Bn2Kn- 41.04 folds) recorded high levels of resistance to fenazaquin, while the mite populations collected on TC banana plants from Vyttila (Bn1Gn- 15.72 folds) and Thrissur (Bn3Tr- 15.80 folds), and on dahlia from Vyttila (Da1Vt- 13.31 folds) recorded moderate level of resistance. Other T. gloveri populations collected on gerbera, anthurium and adenium showed only low levels of resistance. Tetranychustruncatus collected on marigold (81.90 folds) and amaranthus (79.75 folds) from Thrissur recorded very high levels of spiromesifen resistance. The amaranthus population from Vyttila (Am3Vt- 33.41 folds); cowpea (Cp1Pt-25.16 folds) and okra (Ok1Pt- 25.83 folds) populations from Pattambi, showed moderate levels of resistance, while populations on cowpea (RR 07.08) and amaranthus (RR 05.90) collected from Tavanur recorded low levels of resistance. Susceptibility studies of T. gloveri with spiromesifen showed that the population on adenium from National Rose Garden (76.33 folds) and on TC banana from Kannara (71.33 folds) exhibited high levels of resistance. Populations collected on TC banana from Vyttila (30.33 folds), Thrissur (28.17 folds) and Anakkayam (13.79 folds) recorded moderate levels of resistance. The populations collected on the ornamental plants viz., dahlia (24.33 folds), anthurium (19.08 folds) and adenium (17.25 folds) also recorded moderate levels of resistance to spiromesifen. Low to moderate levels of resistance to diafenthiuron were recorded in T. truncatus (1.94- 17.56 folds) and T. gloveri (1.95- 15.57 folds), where marigold population from Thrissur (17.56 folds) and adenium population from National Rose Garden (15.57 folds) recorded significantly higher levels of resistance, respectively. Tetranychustruncatus and T. gloveri populations with resistance to fenpyroximate showed moderate levels of cross-resistance to fenazaquin and the propargite resistant populations showed cross resistance to diafenthiuron. However, the field populations recorded only low levels of multiple resistance to chlorfenapyr and hexythiazox (acaricides with different modes of action) in T. truncatus (1.20- 5.40 folds; 1.00- 1.50 folds) and T. gloveri (1.10- 2.35 folds; 2.08- 12.00 folds). Assay of detoxification enzymes in T. truncatus and T. gloveri showed significantly elevated activities of carboxylesterase (CarE) (1.27-2.27fold; 1.59-2.10 folds), cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (CytP450) (1.36- 4.98 folds; 1.08-3.10 folds), and glutathione S-transferase (GST) (1.00- 2.12 folds; 1.09- 1.98 folds) in resistant populations. The highest activity of detoxifying enzyme was recorded in T. truncatus population on marigold for CytP450. The study on differential gene expression and sequence variation of the CYP392E10 gene (encodes CytP450 enzyme) in the spiromesifen and fenazaquin resistant marigold population of T. truncatus showed a lower CT value with 7.61 folds higher gene expression than the susceptible population. Sequence analysis of CYP392E10 gene in the resistant population showed four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), where T is substituted by A (256th, 676th and 1356th) and A is replaced with G (708th position). The alignment of amino acid sequences of the susceptible and resistant T. truncatus populations showed substitution of Lleucine with methionine at 86th position and phenylalanine with isoleucine and lysine at 226th and 452nd positions, respectively. This study reports alarming levels of acaricide resistance in the spider mites, T. truncatus and T. gloveri in central Kerala, to commonly used acaricides. The mite species were also found to have developed significant levels of cross resistance to many unexposed acaricides. However, significantly low level of multiple resistance to the acaricides, chlorfenapyr and hexythiazox suggests their suitability as alternatives to commonly used acaricides in mite management. The study highlights the role of detoxifying enzymes and the overexpression of the related gene, particularly CytP450 in the development of resistance against commonly used acaricides (fenazaquin, spiromesifen and diafenthiuron). The study also provides new insights into the resistance mechanisms in the mite species in response to sustained acaricide pressure, exhibiting metabolic and target-site insensitivity, which further needs functional validation.
Acidity amelioration and nutrient management practices for mitigating yield constraints of rice in Vaikom Kari
(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2017) Devi, V S; Kumari Swadija, O
Adaptability of crossbred pigs under different housing and feeding systems
(Department of Livestock Production and Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, 2005) Anton Roseline, J; Joseph, Mathew
Adoption of farm implements by the rice farmers of Kerala
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1993) Ahamed, P; Tampi, A M
Aggrading lateric soils (ultisol) using biochar
(Department of Soil Science, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2019) Rajakumar, R
The present investigation was undertaken at College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara and Agricultural Research Station, Mannuthy during 2016-2018. The study consisted of production and characterization of bioehar from coconut based materials, an incubation experiment, and two field experiments. The incubation experiment was conducted for 15 months to study the dynamics of C and N in soil over time and the soil samples were analyzed for C and N fractions at three months' interval. Two field experiments were carried out sequentially, wherein Chinese potato was raised to study the direct effect of bioehar and vegetable cowpea was the test crop to study the residual effect of bioehar applied to the first crop. Three levels of bioehar (5, 7.5, 10 t ha"'), FYM 10 t ha"', soil test based POP + bioehar 10 t ha"' and soil test based POP were the treatments, for both incubation and field experiments. Soil test based POP consisted of NPK and FYM 10 t ha"'. Control plots without the addition of biochar/fertilizers were also maintained. Recovery of bioehar from coconut husk and shell (1:1) on pyrolysis was 22 per cent. The produced bioehar had an alkaline pH (10.01), high EC (3.42 dS m"'), C (64.14 %), CEC (15.78 cmol (+) kg"'), and C: N ratio (113:1). Total N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S contents were 0.567, 0.982, 4.175, 1.19, 0.456 and 0.244 per cent, respectively. Regarding physical properties, bioehar had low bulk density (0.128 Mg m"^), very high porosity (84.63 %) and WHC (307.3 %). Basicity and acidity of bioehar were 2.02 and 0.08 mmol g"', respectively. The surface morphology and chemistry studied using SEM, TEM, FT-IR and Raman spectroscopy revealed the porous, aromatic and recalcitrant nature of bioehar and the presence of functional groups mainly carboxyl, hydroxyl and carbonyl. Results of incubation experiment revealed that the content of organic carbon - (OC), water soluble carbon (WSC) and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) increased up to 6 months of incubation and decreased thereafter. In the case of permanganate oxidizable carbon (POXC) and hot water soluble carbon (HWSC), a decreasing trend was noticed. While the highest value of WSC and HWSC were recorded in FYM 101 ha"', all other C fractions were higher in the treatments viz. soil test based POP + bioehar 10 t ha"' and bioehar 10 t ha"'. With an increase in levels of bioehar, the labile C fractions viz. POXC and MBC increased. The labile C fractions in soil were in the order POXC > HWSC > MBC = WSC. As regards the N fractions, NH4-N declined steadily at 3 months, then increased up to 9 months of incubation after which it decreased till the incubation ended. The NO3-N and amino acid N increased up to 12 months of incubation and slightly declined thereafter. Increase in total hydrolysable N was noticed up to 6 months of incubation and thereafter, a progressive decrease was noticed. While the total N content decreased over the incubation period, the KMn04-N increased. With an increase in levels of biochar, the NO3-N and KMn04-N increased. The treatments soil test based POP + biochar and soil test based POP were equally superior to other treatments with respect to N fractions. Results of field experiments revealed the superiority of biochar 10 t ha"' in increasing soil pH and NH4OAC-K and reducing the exchangeable acidity. The treatments soil test based POP + biochar and soil test based POP were superior with respect to most of the soil properties. Application of biochar at 10 t ha"', either alone or in combination with POP improved the soil properties viz. OC, dehydrogenase activity, CEC, MWHC and hot water soluble B. With an increase in levels of biochar, the soil properties viz. pH, CEC, WHC, dehydrogenase activity, NH4OACK, Ca, HCl-Zn and humic acid increased. With respect to the growth parameters and yield of Chinese potato, application of soil test based POP + biochar and soil test based POP were comparable. The same treatment soil test based POP + biochar that faired in terms of direct effect proved good in residual effect as well, as reflected from the plant growth and yield of cowpea. Path analysis had shown that the soil properties viz. OC, MBC, Bray-P, NH4OAC-K, Ca and EC directly influenced the tuber yield, reinstating the role of biochar in yield improvement. The nutrient content in plant parts and its uptake varied among treatments and corroborated the trend. Considering the quality attributes of Chinese potato, the treatments biochar 10 t ha"' and soil test based POP + biochar recorded higher CHO content. Protein content was highest in the treatments soil test based POP and soil test based POP + biochar. The advantage of biochar on increasing protein content and decreasing crude fibre content was visible in the succeeding crop of cowpea also, thus establishing its high residual effect. The study revealed the potential of biochar as an amendment in the highly weathered, nutrient-poor acidic laterite soils of the tropics. Its application brought about increase in soil pH, addition of basic cations, improvement in CEC and WHC, and gradual release of nutrients to the growing plants. The overall improvement in physical, chemical and biological soil conditions through biochar could promote plant growth, yield as well as quality. The positive effect of biochar could be observed in combination with soil test based fertilizer application also.
Agri tourism in Kerala : a comparative analysis of foreign and domstic tourists experience and satisfaction
(Department of Rural Marketing Management, College of Co-operation, Banking and Management, Vellanikkara, 2024) Maria Poulose, T.; Ushadevi, K N
Agritourism is a type of tourism that uses agricultural life as a tourist attraction. It has the potential to generate additional income and employment for farmers. To merge agriculture with tourism, the Kerala Agri-Tourism Network project was inaugurated in September 2021, as a sub sector of the Responsible Tourism Mission. As part of this initiative, the tourism department launched a website named "Kerala Agri-Tourism Network" to promote the agri-tourism centers of Kerala. This will be beneficial for host agri preneurs, allowing them to register their units on the agri-tourism network, attract more tourists, and achieve greater success. The present study aims to analyse the level of quality of agri tourism services to foreign and domestic tourists, examine the tourist experience in the agri tourism destinations, assess the level of satisfaction in the agri tourism destinations, identify the determinants of motivation to visit agri tourism destinations and delineate the problems faced by the tourists, host agripreneurs and tour operators. Primary and secondary data were used for the study. Primary data were collected from 150 domestic tourists, 150 foreign tourists and 30 host agripreneurs from the agri tourism destinations in Kerala by using pre tested structured questionnaire. The tourists who visited at least one agri tourism destination during 2023-24 were selected for the study. A total of 30 accredited tour operators from Ernakulam and Trivandrum districts were also selected for the study using proportionate sampling method. Thus total sample size of the study was 360. The study area covered the districts having agri tourism destinations in Kerala state such as Idukki, Wayanad, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Palakkad and Pathanamthitta. The accredited tour operators were selected from Ernakulam and Trivandrum districts as they constituted 65% and 23% respectively, to the total accredited tour operators in Kerala during 2019 (Kerala Tourism Statistics 2019). Secondary data were collected from the published reports of Government organizations such as Ministry of Tourism India, Department of Tourism Kerala, DTPC (District Tourism Promotion Council) etc. The collected primary data were analysed by using statistical tools like per centage analysis, SERVQUAL model, Wilcoxon signed rank test, index method, factor analysis, Garrett ranking method, Mann-Whitney U test and Kendall's W coefficient of concordance. The service quality analysis was performed by using SERVQUAL tool and the results revealed a lack of efficient signage boards, lack of trained guides and lack of accessibility features for disabled individuals at the agritourism destinations. The overall service expectation and perception of domestic and foreign tourists were compared by using Wilcoxon signed rank test and found a difference in the expectation and perception level of domestic and foreign tourists on service quality. The tourist experience in the agri tourism destinations were examined by using index method. The tourists responded that the behaviour of employees at agritourism destinations helped them to have a pleasant and refreshing experience. However, the domestic tourists were disappointed with their experiences related to the traditional, historical, and wildlife elements. Domestic tourists had an average experience with entertainment, interactions, eco-friendly activities, souvenir shops, cuisine and weather conditions in agritourism destinations due to lack of interactive experience, underdeveloped souvenir shops, and uncomfortable weather conditions. The overall experience of both tourist categories was marked as 'Neutral' in opinion. The result of Mann Whitney U test indicates similar experience level of both domestic and foreign tourists with respect to two attributes such as ‘well behaviour of employees’ and ‘better interaction with agricultural experts’. For other aspects there is significant difference in tour experience for domestic and foreign tourists. The level of satisfaction in the agritourism destinations was examined by using index method. The findings indicated low satisfaction with accessibility, disable friendly environment, telecommunication facilities and medical facilities available at the agritourism center. The result of Mann Whitney U test shows the similarity in satisfaction level of both domestic and foreign tourists to all variables except for medical facilities. The determinants of motivation to visit agritourism destinations were analysed by using factor analysis. It identified five factors i.e. tour destination determinants, promotional strategies, interest in agri aesthetics, farm to fork experience and entertainment opportunities were motivating domestic tourists to visit agritourism destinations. Among foreign tourists, the primary motivating factors to visit agritourism destinations were farm life experience, interest in agri aesthetics, promotional strategies, tour destination determinants and the credibility of the destinations. The issues encountered by domestic tourists during their visit to agritourism centers were identified using garret tanking method. The analysis ranked the issue of low accessibility as the most severe problem followed by lack of disabled-friendly environment at agritourism centers, lack of proper signage boards, lack of sufficient medical facilities at agritourism center and problems with mobile network connectivity and internet access. The foreign tourists ranked low accessibility to agritourism centers as the primary concern followed by inadequate placement of signage boards, difficulties in communicating with local residents/staff members, lack of disable friendly environment and lack of trained guides at agritourism centers. The result of Kendall's W value (0.071) shows the low degree of agreement among the opinion of domestic and foreign tourists regarding the problems they faced at agritourism destinations. The Mann-Whitney U test results reveal a significant difference in the problems faced by domestic and foreign tourists at agritourism destinations across all variables, except for those related to accessibility, the behavior of other tourists, and the cost of entertainment activities. The challenges faced by tour operators ranked the customization of tour packages as significant issue followed by intense competition within the tourism industry, staff poaching and safety related concerns. Specific to domestic tourists, tour operator ranked the acceptance of the tour package price in top followed by difficulty in customizing tour packages and lack of punctuality among domestic tourists. Whereas for foreign tourists the challenges include issue of customization of tour packages followed by difficulty in accepting the package price and in establishing trust. The primary challenge for host agripreneurs is intense competition, followed closely by adverse weather conditions and high maintenance costs. When managing domestic tourists, a significant issue is the difficulty in getting customers to accept tour package prices, along with challenges in ensuring adherence to instructions. For foreign tourists, agripreneurs struggle with implementing effective marketing strategies and establishing trust with this audience. From the study it can be concluded that the introduction of agritourism in Kerala has been largely welcomed by tourists, with a significant number of visitors serving as strong evidence of its success. However, the existence of operational gap between the general tourism sector and agritourism, causing agritourism to function in isolation. As a result of this separation, agritourism being perceived as one of the least developed areas within the tourism industry. However, by linking agritourism activities to broader tourism efforts, the sector may increase its productivity and overall effectiveness. This progress can only be achieved through the collaborative efforts of the government, agripreneurs, tour operators, and tourists. Such advancements could turn agritourism into a significant source of revenue for the state.
Agricultural expert system - a participatory assessment
(Department of Agricultural extension, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2008) Helen, S; Kaleel, F M H
Cyber Extension includes effective use of Information and Communication Technology, national and international information networks, Internet, Expert Systems, Multimedia Learning Systems and Computer based training systems to improve information access to the farmers, extension personnel and scientists. The dissemination of the technologies could be enhanced by using expert systems and other artificial intelligence technologies (Hadi et al., 2006). An expert system is a computer-based program that uses knowledge, facts and different reasoning techniques to solve problems that normally require the abilities of human experts. The expert systems are based on the concept of artificial intelligence in which the experience and knowledge of human experts are captured in the form of IF-THEN rules and facts, to solve the field problems (Rao, 2003). ‘Diagnos-4’, was a computer-assisted software developed by Kerala Agricultural University during 2004. This package would support the agricultural extension workers and literate farmers for decision-making and help them in suggesting suitable control measures of the major pests and diseases of important nine crops of Kerala (Ganesan, 2002). It will be modified and released shortly for the benefit of all the stakeholders involved in agricultural development. Before introducing the system among users, it is appropriate to explore the possibilities of functioning of AES under the existing extension system so that suitable modifications can be made to make it more user friendly. Development of AES, ‘Diagnos-4’ was the pioneering and ambitious programme of Kerala Agricultural University. The personnel involved in technology dissemination and technology users need much information on plant protection measures. Hence ‘Diagnos-4’ was selected purposively. The research was conducted among the prospective users in two phases viz; exploratory design among researchers who were in the research institutes engaged in AES development and in TOT, all over India and experimental design among extension personnel and farmers from Palakkad District of Kerala. Mean scores, percentage analysis, Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance, t-test for two samples assuming equal variances and Binary Logistic Regression were the statistical tools used in this study. Twenty AES were identified during this study, developed by various agricultural research institutions in India. Many of the systems were restricted only to limited groups of users and they were yet to be popularized among the ultimate users. It was found that extension personnel and farmers possessed low level of knowledge especially in the areas of plant protection aspects of crops and they were in need of information on the same. Hence there is a lot of scope for the application of AES among extension personnel and farmers on plant protection aspects of crops that help the users to clarify their doubts, confirm their knowledge and provide real time information to the technology users. Prospective users in the transfer of technology stream were very much satisfied about the future prospects of AES based on its better performance, settings in the AES, mode of presentation, practicability and serviceability of the system. The areas that needed modifications were: retrievability of information, relevancy of information and information content. Release of Malayalam Version with more emphasis on easy retrievability of information, needs the immediate attention of the researchers. All the categories of respondents perceived that AES had got ‘more potential’ in the transfer of technology in terms of disseminating information to the users. The combination of AES and human expertise showed better performance and higher Information Efficiency Index (IEI) among the extension personnel and farmers. Majority of the extension personnel rated AES with high IEI. Whereas majority of the farmers rated AES with low IEI. Extension personnel and farmers assessed that the overall percentage of solution offered by AES in the plant protection of rice, coconut and banana was almost on par with the solutions given by human experts and in combination, it served better. It is better to introduce the AES designed separately for extension personnel and farmers. It is also necessary to release the software among the prospective users after a comprehensive orientation in using the AES. Maximum potential of AES can be explored by making the users as the partners in the AES development process to ensure user friendliness of Agricultural Expert System.
Agricultural information support service vis-a-vis kisan call centre: a performance auditing
(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2016) Shely Mary Koshy; Kishore Kumar, N
Agro techniques for bush type vegetable cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) under open precision farming
(Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2020) Chijina, K; Latha, A
Agro Techniques in Bhindi for precision farming
(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2019) Ammu Punnoose; Sajitha Rani, T
Agro- techniques for sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) under partial shade of coconut in southern laterites
(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2024-10-19) Arunima Babu, C S.; Sheeja, K Raj
The study entitled ‘Agro-techniques for sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) under partial shade of coconut in Southern Laterites’ was undertaken at College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 2021-24, with the objectives to standardize the nutrient levels for sesame under partial shade of coconut in Southern Laterites, assess the response of promising sesame varieties to the identified optimum nutrient levels and evaluate the allelopathic effect of sesame on selected weeds and crops. Field experiments were conducted at Coconut Research Station (CRS), Balaramapuram, to identify the optimum nutrient levels for sesame in Southern Laterites during Rabi 2021-22 and 2022-23, using variety Thilak. The experiments were conducted in the inter row spaces of coconut palms aged more than 60 years planted at a spacing of 7.6 m × 7.6 m. It was laid out in central composite design (CCD), with 20 runs viz., T1:31:20:16 kg NPK ha-1, T2:64:20:16 kg NPK ha-1, T3:31:50:16 kg NPK ha-1, T4:64:50:16 kg NPK ha-1,T5:31:20:34 kg NPK ha-1, T6:64:20:34 kg NPK ha-1, T7:31:50:34 kg NPK ha-1, T8:64:50:34 kg NPK ha-1, T9:20:35:25 kg NPK ha- 1, T10:75:35:25 kg NPK ha-1, T11:48:10:25 kg NPK ha-1, T12:48:60:25 kg NPK ha-1, T13:48:35:10 kg NPK ha-1,T14:48:35:40 kg NPK ha-1 and T15 to T20 (represented the central points of CCD): 48:35:25 kg NPK ha-1, replicated thrice. The nutrient level for sesame in Southern Laterites was standardized by plotting response surface curves using the seed yield of sesame during both years. Remaining observations were statistically analysed using randomized block design (RBD) with fifteen treatments (T1-T14, same as that of CCD, T15: was taken as the average of treatments T15-T20 in CCD). The growth parameters viz., plant height, number of leaves per plant, number of branches per plant and dry matter production were significantly influenced by different nutrient levels. Results on growth attributes at harvest revealed that, T1 produced taller plants during 2021-22 and 2022-23. However, T1 was on par with T2 during 2021-22 and with T2 and T4 during 2022-23. During both years, the highest number of leaves per plant was observed in T1 at 60 DAS. However, T1 resulted in more number of branches per plant at harvest during 2021- 22 and was on par with T2. While, during 2022-23, T2 produced more number of branches per plant and was on par with T1. During both years, DMP was significantly higher in T1 at all stages of observation. Physiological parameters were also significantly influenced by nutrient levels. During both years at 60 DAS, T1 resulted in higher LAI. However, it was on par with T2 and T4, during 2021-22 and with T2 during 2022-23. Chlorophyll content at 60 DAS was significant only during 2021-22 and T2 resulted in higher chlorophyll content which was on par with T1 and T4. Crop growth rate varied significantly with nutrient levels. At 40 DAS-60 DAS, T1 resulted in higher CGR which was on par with T2, T4 and T7 during both years. Similarly, higher RGR was noted in T1 which was on par with T2, T4, T7 and T11 at 40 DAS-60 DAS. Greater number of seeds per capsule was observed in T1 which was on par with T2 during 2021-22 and with T2 and T4 during 2022-23. During both years, the highest number of capsules per plant (57.7 and 74.7, respectively) and seed yield (503.5 kg ha-1 and 554.7 kg ha-1, respectively) were observed in T1. Pooled analysis of seed yield also revealed the highest value in T1 (529.1 kg ha-1). Whereas, the haulm yield and harvest index in T1 and T2 were comparable during both years. The optimum NPK levels identified by plotting the response surface curves during 2021-22 were 35:26:7 kg NPK ha-1 and 34:21:3 kg NPK ha-1 and during 2022-23 was 34:35:3 kg NPK ha-1. Oil content in seed varied significantly only during 2021-22 with the treatment T1 resulting in significantly higher oil content. During 2021-22, higher crude protein content was observed in T1 which was on par with T2. While during 2022-23, T2 resulted in higher crude protein content which was on par with T1 and T4. Higher P, Mg and Fe content in the seeds were observed in T2 during both years. Calcium content in the seeds was significant only during 2022-23 and was higher in T1. Similarly, Zinc content in the seeds was significant only during 2021-22 and was higher in T1. Post experiment soil analysis revealed that T1 resulted in higher organic carbon content, available N and P in the soil during both years. Available K was higher in T1 during 2021-22 and in T2 during 2022-23. The N, P and K uptake by the crop were also significantly influenced by nutrient levels and were higher in T1. The results on economics of cultivation revealed the highest gross return, net return and B:C ratio in T1 during both years. Field experiment to validate the response of promising sesame varieties to the identified optimum nutrient levels was laid out in split plot design during 2023- 24 at CRS Balaramapuram. The main plot treatments included five nutrient levels viz., 35:26:7 kg NPK ha-1 (n1), 34:21:3 kg NPK ha-1 (n2), 34:35:3 kg NPK ha-1 (n3), 31:20:16 kg NPK ha-1 (n4) and 30:15:30 kg NPK ha-1 (n5) and the sub plot treatments comprised of six sesame varieties viz., Kayamkulam 1(v1), Thilathara (v2), Thilarani (v3), Thilak (v4), GT 10 (v5) and TMV 7(v6). The nutrient levels had significant influence on growth parameters. Among the nutrient levels, n2 produced the tallest plants at harvest. Similarly at 60 DAS, number of leaves and branches per plant were higher in n2. At harvest significantly higher DMP was observed in n2. Similarly at 60 DAS, n2 resulted in higher LAI and chlorophyll content which was on par with n1. At 60 DAS-harvest, n2 resulted in the highest CGR and RGR. Significantly more number of capsules per plant, seeds per capsule and higher seed yield were observed in n2. Higher haulm yield was also observed in n2 which was on par with n1. Among the quality parameters, higher P, Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn content in the seeds were observed in n2. Similarly, higher N, P and K uptake and available N, P and K in the soil were observed in n2. The results on economics of cultivation revealed that the highest gross return, net return and B:C ratio were observed in n2. Adoption of optimum nutrient level (34:21:3 kg NPK ha-1) reduced the consumption of K by 90 per cent, compared to KAU POP recommendation, which could be attributed to medium to high K status in the soil of Southern Laterites. The growth parameters varied among the tested sesame varieties. Among the varieties, the tallest plants were observed in v5 at harvest. At 60 DAS, greater number of leaves and branches per plant were recorded in v5 which was on par with v4. At harvest, the highest DMP was observed in v5 (19.71 g per plant). Similarly, at 60 DAS, v5 had higher LAI which was on par with v4. The chlorophyll content was the highest in v5 at 60 DAS. Significantly more number of capsules per plant (84.0), higher seed yield (1066.0 kg ha-1) and haulm yield (2502 kg ha-1) were recorded in v5. The variety v5 recorded higher P, Ca, Mg and Fe content in the seeds. Results on nutrient uptake and availability revealed that higher soil available N, P and K in the post-harvest soil and N, P and K uptake by the crop were observed in v5.The variety GT 10 resulted in the highest gross return, net return and B:C ratio. Interaction effect of nutrient levels over varieties revealed that at 60 DAS and harvest, taller plants were observed in n2v5. The treatment, n2v5 also recorded more number of leaves per plant at 60 DAS. At harvest, the highest DMP was observed in n2v5. Higher LAI and chlorophyll content at 60 DAS were observed in n2v5. Similarly, n2v5 produced greater number of capsules per plant, higher seed yield ha-1and haulm yield ha-1. The results on nutrient uptake revealed that n2v5 resulted in higher N and P uptake. The treatment n2v5 also resulted in the highest gross return, net return and B:C ratio. The interaction effect of varieties over nutrient levels revealed that at harvest, all varieties except v3 produced taller plants at nutrient level n2. While v3 produced taller plants at n3. At 60 DAS, all varieties except v3, produced greater number of leaves per plant at n2. While, v3 produced higher number of leaves per plant at n3. At 60 DAS and harvest, all varieties produced higher DMP, LAI and chlorophyll content at n2. Similarly, all varieties produced the highest number of capsules per plant and seed yield ha-1 at n2. All varieties except v3 produced higher haulm yield ha-1 at n2. However, v3 produced higher haulm yield ha-1 at n1. The results on post experiment soil analysis revealed that all varieties except v1 recorded higher available N at n2. While, v1 recorded higher available N at n1. All varieties recorded the highest N and P uptake at nutrient level n2. The results on economics of cultivation revealed that all varieties recorded the highest gross return, net return and B:C ratio at n2. The leachates of different sesame varieties had significant impact on germination and seedling growth of weeds viz., Alternanthera sessilis, Setaria barbata and Cyperus rotundus. Leachate of variety GT10 had significant inhibitory effect on the germination, seedling shoot length, root length, dry weight, SVI I and SVI II of all tested weeds. Similarly, the leachates of different sesame varieties had significant impact on germination and seedling growth of tested crops viz., cowpea and okra. Application of leachate of variety GT 10 resulted in the lowest germination percentage, seedling shoot length, root length, fresh weight, dry weight, SVI I and SVI II of cowpea and okra. While leachates had no significant effect on the germination and seedling growth of amaranthus. From the results of the study, it could be concluded that the optimum nutrient level for sesame under partial shade of coconut in Southern Laterites was 34:21:3 kg NPK ha-1. Among the tested sesame varieties, GT 10 was identified as the best variety for Southern Laterites. The variety GT 10 raised under partial shade of coconut gardens manured with 5 t ha-1 of FYM + 34:21:3 kg NPK ha-1 (full dose of P, K and 75 per cent N as basal application and 25 per cent N as foliar spray at 3 per cent concentration, 30 DAS) realized the highest seed yield, net return and B:C ratio. Application of leachate of variety GT 10 had significant inhibitory effect on the germination and growth of test weeds (Alternanthera sessilis, Setaria barbata and Cyperus rotundus) and test crops (cowpea and okra).
Agrobacterium -mediated genetic transformation in black pepper (Piper rigrum L.)
(Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2000) Homey Cheriyan; Vijayakumar, N K
Agrobacterium mediated genetic transformation in dendrobium
(Department of Pomology & Floriculture, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2005) Swarnapiria, R; Rajmohan, K
Agrobacterium mediated genetic transformation of ginger (zinbiger officinale rosc.)
(Department of Plantation Crops and Spices, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, 2006) Suma, B; Keshavachandran, R
Investigations on genetic transformation in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) variety Rio-de-Janeiro using Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain EHA 105 harbouring antibiotic resistant selectable marker genes (npt II) and GUS reporter genes were carried out at the Department of Plantation Crops and Spices and Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory, CPBMB, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, Thrissur during the period from 1999 to 2005. Axenic shoot bud cultures of ginger variety Rio-de-Janeiro was raised under in vitro condition to generate explants with reduced contamination for transformation. Half strength MS medium with BA 3 mg l-1 was found to be the best for establishing shoot bud cultures. In order to standardise a regeneration protocol, MS medium supplemented with varying concentration of auxin and cytokinin were tried on different explants. Embryogenic calli were induced from bud explants of ginger supplemented with MS + 1.0 mg l-1 2,4-D + 0.5 mg l-1 BA, followed by plant regeneration on MS medium + BA 3 mg l-1 + 2,4-D 0.5 mg l-1. Bactericidal effect of antibiotics towards different strains of Agrobacterium and sensitivity of ginger tissues to different antibiotics were also studied to standardise the optimum level of antibiotics. Cefotaxime at a concentration of 300 mg l-1 was selected for eliminating the bacteria after co-cultivation. Kanamycin 100 mg l-1 was used to discriminate between transformed and untransformed cells. Agrobacterium strains were collected, recombinants were made and the presence of the construct confirmed in the native strains of Agrobacterium before starting transformation experiments. Agrobacterium strain EHA 105 p35SGUSINT was used for standardising the optimum conditions by comparing the levels of transient GUS expression in inoculated buds. A suitable transformation protocol would include 3 days preculture of explants, bacterial dilution of 1:20 (v/v), infection time of 5 min, co-cultivation of 48 h and post cultivation on callus induction medium with 100 mg l-1 kanamycin + 300 mg l-1 cefotaxime in darkness for 2 weeks and then under 16/8 h photoperiod. Use of acetosyringone in the co-cultivation medium (200 µm) and vir induced Agrobacterium strain (200 µm), increased the efficiency of transformation. Histochemical GUS assays were employed to study and compare the transient GUS expression, stable expression from putative transgenics. Further confirmation was made by PCR assays. The regeneration protocol as well as transformation protocol could be effectively used for further transformation.
Agronomic evaluation of biofarming techniques for forage production in coconut gardens
(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1996) Sansamma George; Raghavan Pillai, G
Two field experiments were conducted at the Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala State to study the potential of biofarming techniques for forage production in coconut gardens. The study was carried out for a period of two years from September 1993 to August 1995. The influence of the different nutrient management techniques on uptake of nutrients, quality of produce and physico-chemical properties of soil was also investigated. In experiment no.1. the influence of two nitrogen fixing organisms., viz. Azospirillum and Azotobacter and the role of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM) in improving the growth and production of guinea grass and congosignal was studied under inoculation alone and also in combination with chemical fertilizers. The nitrogen fixers were tested under varying levels of fertilizer nitrogen and for VAM the level of phosphorus varied between treatments. The prospects for vermicompost use for guinea grass production was examined under experiment no. 2. It was also envisaged to compare the impact of integrated use of manures and fertilizers with the continuous use of chemical fertilizers alone. Results of experiment no.1 revealed that Azospirillum inoculation alone and in combination with fertilizers had significant positive influence on guinea grass production. Azotobacter inoculation showed only limited effects on growth and yield of the forage grass during the first year but the effect was significant during the second year. The results indicated that 25 per cent of the recommended nitrogen could be saved through the use of either of the biofertilizers. VAM inoculation when combined with full dose of recommended fertilizer nitrogen and potassium, showed significant superiority over the POP treatment at 0, 25 and 50 per cent phosphorus doses while the 75 percent P dose gave comparable yields. The quality parameters of the forage recorded values on par or superior to that of the recommended fertilizer treatment. The use of biofertilizers improved the net income and benefit : cost ratio from guinea grass cultivation. The inoculation treatments were found to have a favourable influence on the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Integrated use of the nitrogen fixing organisms with chemical fertilizers was found effective for Congosignal cultivation. Pooled analysis studies indicated that when inoculated with either Azospirillum or Azotobacter, 50 per cent of the recommended fertilizer nitrogen was adequate for yields. VAM inoculation alone elicited significant yield increase over the absolute control. Combind doses of VAM with chemical fertilizers at all levels of applied phosphorus responded more or less similar to the recommended fertilizer treatment. This indicated the possibility of completely substituting the need for fertilizer phosphorus in VAM inoculated congosignal. The VAM effect in promoting growth and yield of the forage was found to decline in the presence of applied phosphorus. The data on economics also favoured the use of biofertilizers. Experiment no. 2 revealed that guinea grass responded well to integrated use of manures and fertilizers. As per pooled analysis vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 or Farm yard manure @ 10 t ha-1 when combind with 75 per cent of the recommended NPK were comparable with the 100 per cent NPK treatment. Application of the organic manures improved the quality of the produce. The physic-chemical properties of the soil was also favourably influenced by the integrated use of manures and fertilizers. The economic analysis of the data emphasised the need for reducing the reliance on purchased inputs. Coconut yield was found favourably influenced by intercropping of the fodder grasses.
Agronomic evaluation of chemical and bio-agents on phosphorus dynamics in red loam soils of southern Kerala
(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1995) Viswambharan, K; Sasidhar, V K
Agronomic evaluation of rice cultivars for rainfed conditions of Kerala
(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1993) Sheela, K R; Thomas Alexander
Two field experiments were conducted at the Cropping Systems Research Centre, Karamana and one pot culture trial at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani during 1991 and 1992, to select a suitable rice variety and nutrient level required for maximum rice production in the rainfed wetlands of Southern Kerala. The influence of seed hardening in inducing stress tolerance was also studied. In the study, experiment I included a pot culture trial with six varieties, viz., Jaya, Culture -4, M-102, Rasi, Ravi and Tulasi and six methods of seed hardening viz., water, triazole, NaH2PO4, KCI, cowdung extract treatments and a control in two moisture regimes. The significant results of the study were tested in the field. Experiment 2 included these six varieties and three nutrient levels, viz., 100, 75 and 50 per cent of recommended dose for medium duration varieties (90 : 45 : 45 kg N, P2o5 and K2o) and was conducted as a factorial experiment in RBD during the first crop season of 1991 and 1992. The results of the germination study revealed that KCI concentration of 2.50 per cent was ideal for seed hardening. Seed hardening improved germination of all the varieties and water treatment registered the highest vigour index values. In pot culture, Culture – 4 with water treatment registered the highest biomass production, grain and straw yields. The variety, Jaya had the highest root weight and root : shoot ratio. Among the seed treatments, water, KCI and triazole treatments favourably influenced the yield attributes, yield, root parameters and root : shoot ratio. Increasing the moisture regime from 50 to 100 per cent available water enhanced the growth characters, RWC, chlorophyll and decreased the proline content. The subsequent field trial with the highest grain yielding varieties and seed treatments confirmed the superiority of Rasi and Tulasi for increased grain yield, net income and benefit : cost ratio. The different seed treatments also had favourable influence on the above characters. The results of experiment 2 revealed that M – 102 recorded the highest plant height during both the years, while, Tulasi and Rasi had higher tiller number. The varieties, M-102 and Rasi registered higher straw yield than the others. Increased nutrient levels improved growth characters and straw yield. Pooled analysis of grain yield revealed that the varieties, Jaya, Rasi and Tulasi were good yielders and 75 per cent of the recommended nutrient level was sufficient to obtain high grain yield under rainfed conditions. Increased RWC values were observed in the drought tolerant varieties, Ravi, Tulasi and Rasi and at increased nutrient levels. Proline eontent was unaffected by varieties and nutrient levels. The variety, Jaya registered the highest uptake of major nutrients during 1991 while, Tulasi, Rasi and M-102 had higher uptake than the others during 1992. The highest nutrient level recorded the maximum uptake during both the years. Among the varieties, Jaya, Tulasi, Culture – 4 and Rasi recorded high net income and benefit : cost ratio. Among the nutrient levels, the variation between 100 and 75 per cent recommended nutrient dose was not significant with regard to net income and benefit : cost ratio. Under rainfed conditions, 75 per cent of the recommended nutrient dose was sufficient for the varieties, Jaya, Rasi and Tulasi to obtain commensurate yield, net income and benefit : cost ratio. Moreover, the yield and economic returns could be increased by resorting to seed hardening methods.
Agronomic interventions for a sustainable rice based cropping system in paddy fields
(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2016) Vipitha, V P; Babu Mathew, P
Agronomic investigations on 'TARO' (Colocasia esculenta L.) variety - Thamarakannan
(Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 1986) Mohan Kumar, C R; Sadanandan, N
In order to standardize the cultural and fertilizer requirement of two (Colocasia esculata) two separate field experiments were conducted during 1983-84 and 1984-85 at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani. The first experiment (Experiment A) with treatments consisting of two sources of planting material (side and mother corn) four spacing (60 x 30, 45 x 45, 60x 45, 60x60 cm) and five sources of mulching (Green leaf, Coconut coir/husk waste, Water hyacinth, black polythene and no mulch) was conducted in asplit plot design. The second experiment (Experiemnt B) was a 3 x 2 partially confounded factorial design with three levels each of nitrogen (40,80,120 kg ha-1), P2O5 (25, 50,75 kg ha-1), K2O (50, 100,150 kg ha-1) and two times of application (two split application of N and K and three split application of N and K) with two replication