PhD Thesis
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Item Structural and functional dynamics of NICRA villages in Kerala and Karnataka:stakeholder analysis(Department of Agricultural Extension,College of Agriculture,Vellayani, 2025-07-16) Manju Prem,S; Jayalekshmi,GThe present research, titled "Structural and Functional Dynamics of NICRA Villages in Kerala and Karnataka: Stakeholder Analysis," explores how socio economic characteristics, agro-ecological conditions, and stakeholder roles contribute to climate resilience in agriculture. The study was conducted across four NICRA villages, representing distinct climatic challenges: two drought-affected villages in Karnataka (Hanumaigarahalli in Chikkaballapur and Durgadanagenahalli in Tumkur), one drought-affected village (Pattithara in Palakkad), and one flood-affected village (Edathua in Alappuzha) in Kerala. A total of 300 respondents participated, including 160 farmers, 40 KVK (Krishi Vigyan Kendra) officials, and 100 other stakeholders, including researchers, line department officials, local government representatives, and NGOs. The study employed a mixed-method approach, combining quantitative and qualitative tools to collect and analyse data on stakeholders' perceptions of climate change, vulnerability, capacity needs, and training preferences. The dependent variable of the study is the perception of capacity needs under NICRA. Perception scales were developed and validated for both farmers and KVK officials to assess their capacity needs under the NICRA program. Thirteen independent variables for farmers and six for KVK officials were selected. Statistical tools used included frequency and percentage analysis, mean, standard deviation, Z-test, one way ANOVA, correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis. The majority of farmers (45%) perceived their capacity needs as upper medium, followed by 23.75 per cent perceiving them as lower medium, and 16.25 per cent as low. KVK officials, on the other hand, predominantly perceived their capacity needs as lower medium (57.5%), with only a small proportion perceiving them as high (12.5%). These scales were correlated with objective measures such as operational landholding and service experience, further validating the perception results. Key findings revealed that farmers, especially smallholders, were identified as the most important stakeholders in the NICRA project, followed by women farmers and KVK officials. Local self-government bodies, such as Panchayats and Gram Sabhas, also played a critical role, while NGOs and community-based organizations (CBOs) were found to be less influential in project execution. This shows there is a need to prioritize engagement with the most important stakeholders for effective implementation of climate resilience initiatives. The study also examined the socio-economic characteristics of the farmer respondents. The majority (81.25%) of respondents were male, with education levels ranging from illiterate to high school, and most managed marginal to small landholdings. The majority of respondents were relatively inexperienced in farming, with a significant portion of farmers falling into the novice or advanced beginner categories. Income levels were predominantly low to middle, indicating significant economic challenges. The frequency of contact with extension agencies, especially KVK, was found to be high, and participation in capacity-building activities varied, with crop management and integrated farming systems being the most popular topics. Farmers' preferences and adoption of climate-resilient practices were also examined. High Yielding Varieties, Soil Conservation, and Custom Hiring Centres were the most preferred practices, with High Yielding Varieties ranking highest in adoption. Farmers reported significant benefits from these practices, including increased income, reduced climate risks, and enhanced crop production. However, farmers emphasized the need for continued government support, lower initial investment costs, and sustained assistance from the NICRA project to enhance the uptake of these practices. The study found that farmers in both Kerala and Karnataka perceived significant climate changes, particularly rising temperatures. In Kerala, 93.75 per cent of farmers and in Karnataka, 90 per cent of farmers noted an increase in temperature. Precipitation patterns also varied significantly between the two states, with 45 per cent of farmers in Kerala observing a decrease in rainfall and 93.75 per cent of farmers in Karnataka reporting reduced rainfall, indicating more severe drought conditions in the latter state. Both states reported concerns about delayed monsoon onset, with 98.75 per cent of Karnataka farmers and 56.25 per cent of Kerala farmers noting this shift, which disrupts planting schedules. Also, a significant reduction in the frequency and intensity of rainfall was reported across both regions, emphasizing the growing climate challenges farmers are facing. The study also examined the farming practices most vulnerable to climate stresses. In Kerala, crop production was found to be the most vulnerable due to dependence on monsoon rains, followed by pisciculture and horticulture, which are affected by water scarcity and temperature fluctuations. In Karnataka, horticulture was identified as the most vulnerable practice, followed by pisciculture and crop production. Poultry and livestock farming showed moderate vulnerability, while floriculture and beekeeping were less impacted by climate stress. These findings highlight the need for targeted interventions in these sectors to reduce vulnerability. Farmers' preferences regarding NICRA training were also analysed. The most preferred training agency was KVK, followed by universities and private seed/fertilizer companies. Demonstration was the preferred training method, emphasizing the importance of practical, hands-on learning. Farmers preferred training durations of 3-6 days, ideally conducted before the cropping season to ensure preparedness. Monthly training was also favoured, with pest and disease management being the top priority for both knowledge and skill development. The study also highlighted the strengths and gaps in the capacity development of farmers. Teamwork, norms, and network building were identified as strong social capacities, while gaps were observed in group process skills, shared vision, and strategic planning. Among individual capacities, leadership and entrepreneurship showed promise, but weaknesses were evident in technology adoption and financial literacy. Targeted training in these areas is needed to equip farmers to navigate challenges and adopt climate-resilient agricultural practices effectively. Key constraints faced by farmers in relation to NICRA training were also identified. The most significant constraint was the inadequate assessment of training needs, which led to a mismatch between training content and farmers' practical requirements. Other constraints included lack of storage facilities for perishable produce, absence of follow-up actions for clarification, and lack of participatory planning. Addressing these gaps in training delivery and logistical support could significantly enhance the effectiveness of the NICRA program. The study further examined the profiles of KVK officials, revealing diverse characteristics in terms of age, education, and service experience. Most officials had postgraduate or PhD qualifications, with a mix of experienced and novice respondents. NICRA-specific experience was limited, with most officials being novices or moderately experienced in the program. Training participation was varied, with some officials having attended advanced or intensive training. These findings emphasize the need for further capacity-building efforts to strengthen the expertise of officials, especially in NICRA-specific activities. The study's relational analysis revealed that service experience and NICRA-specific experience significantly influenced officials' perceptions of the program. Age, education, and training participation showed weaker correlations. These findings underlines the importance of experience in shaping officials' perceptions and highlight the potential for targeted training to improve the implementation of the NICRA program. A framework named “NICRA Capacity Development and Implementation Framework” (NCDIF) was developed for the study, designed to enhance climate resilience among stakeholders. Phase 1 involves needs assessment, stakeholder analysis, baseline data collection, and resource mapping. Phase 2 focuses on capacity building through customized training programs, workshops on financial literacy, and access to resilient crop varieties. Phase 3 emphasizes implementation, improving resource accessibility, networking, and forming farmer cooperatives. Phase 4 includes monitoring, evaluation, and feedback to assess success and adjust strategies. The framework covers short-term (0-6 months), medium-term (6-12 months), and long-term (18-36 months) goals. To address constraints in the NICRA program, strategies for farmers include participatory training needs assessments, cold storage units, structured follow-ups, participatory planning, crop insurance awareness, pre-training surveys, monitoring frameworks, vocational training, improved credit access, and gender-sensitive programs for women. For officials, strategies focus on mechanization subsidies, participatory planning, enhanced communication skills, transparent trainee selection, timely input availability, and hands-on training. Also, real-time service monitoring and performance-based incentives for extension staff are recommended. These strategies aim to enhance farmer engagement, training relevance, and program delivery. This research emphasizes the vital role of stakeholders in boosting climate resilience in agriculture. The findings stress the importance of a targeted, inclusive approach to engaging farmers, KVK officials, and other stakeholders in capacity building initiatives. Addressing constraints, refining training assessments, and enhancing both individual and social capacities are essential for the success of climate resilient agricultural practices within the NICRA program. By focusing on these areas, stakeholders can collaborate to mitigate climate change impacts and strengthen the resilience of farming communities in Kerala and Karnataka.Item Natural resource management and community participation - a study on watershed development projects in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2023-05-08) Silpa R C.; Mereykutty M JMore than 60 per cent of India’s population still reside in rural areas and depend on agriculture for livelihoods. Natural resources are the prime inputs for agriculture and allied activities. Ever increasing population pressure leads to land degradation which adversely affects resource productivity. In Kerala, 67 per cent of total geographic area has already been degraded mainly by soil erosion and soil acidity caused due to anthropogenic and natural factors. Devolution of responsibilities for management of natural resources at the community level has been increasing over years at watersheds in rainfed tracts of the country. With this background, present study was conducted to analyze the perceived effectiveness of watershed development projects in ensuring natural resource management (NRM) and livelihood security by different stakeholders. Factors affecting the effective implementation of these projects were delineated. Extent of adoption of soil and water conservation measures under the projects was examined. Indigenous NRM and climate resilient techniques followed by project beneficiaries were also documented. This exploratory study was undertaken in three micro-watersheds viz., Mundyanum, Allanchery padam-Kallan thodu and Mamoodu from the three districts, Kasaragod, Thrissur and Pathanamthitta representing northern, central and southern zones of Kerala respectively. Projects implemented under Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) during the period 2010-11 to 2017-18 were selected. From every selected micro-watershed, 50 beneficiaries (NRM) and 40 other stakeholders (30 watershed committee (WC) members and 10 implementing officers) were randomly selected. Thus, a total of 270 stakeholders of IWMP constituted the sample. Analysis of the profile characteristics of different stakeholders in IWMP revealed that majority of them were middle aged, with moderate farming experience. Most of them possessed medium level of leadership quality, innovativeness, decision making ability, risk orientation, group cohesiveness, extension agency contact and had participated in the programme for mainly getting material incentives. More than half of the stakeholders exhibited medium level participation in IWMP and increasing trend in participation was observed from beneficiaries to other categories which was statistically confirmed by KruskalWallis test. Categorical principal component analysis of factors influencing participation of stakeholders delineated psycho-personal-interactive and management factors for beneficiaries while socio-psychological and personal cum interactive factors for WC members. These factors were positively and significantly correlated with extent of participation. It was found that fifty eight per cent of stakeholders had the opinion that watershed projects could derive medium effectiveness in NRM and there were no differences among stakeholders. However, Kruskal-Wallis test proved the order of watersheds in increasing effectiveness as Mundyanum, Allanchery padam-Kallan thodu, Mamoodu respectively. Factor analysis was conducted to validate conceptual framework of effectiveness index. Kendall’s coefficient of concordance revealed that bio-physical dimension had contributed more towards effectiveness in the three watersheds, followed by socio-economic, institutional and sustainability dimensions. Most of the beneficiaries had medium level of capital assets possession for livelihood creation whereas half of them had medium livelihood security. This was highest in Mamoodu and not much variation for Mundyanum and Allanchery padam-KallanItem Risk behaviour of vegetable farmers in special agricultural zones in Kerala: an empirical analysis(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2022-11-04) Navitha Raj; Allan ThomasThe study on “Risk behaviour of vegetable farmers in Special Agricultural Zones in Kerala: An empirical analysis” was conducted during 2018 to 2021 with the objectives to identify the crop dominance in vegetables, analyse the perception on different risk sources, develop a risk attitude scale and risk propensity index of the vegetable farmers. The study also delineated the factors influencing the farmer’s attitude towards the risks in vegetable farming and profiled farmer’s strategies at combating the risks associated with vegetable farming. Blocks of Devikulam in Idukki district, Kanjikuzhy in Alappuzha district, Pazhayannur in Thrissur district and Chittoor- Kollengode in Palakkad district, identified as SAZ for vegetables were selected as the location for study. A total of 270 vegetable farmers selected randomly from six panchayats representing different AEUs in the blocks were the respondents of the study. Thirty extension personnel from the SAZs were also included in the study. The numerical, economic and total mean dominance of crops were worked out for each SAZs. The results revealed that cowpea was found to be the most dominant crops in the SAZ Kollengode with a total mean value of 3.20 and in Pazhayannur (2.97). The most dominant crop in SAZ Chitoor was found to be tomato (3.40). Bhindi (4.49) and beans (4.12) were found to be the most dominant vegetable crops in SAZ Kanjikuzhy and Devikulam respectively. Vegetable crop biodiversity profile of SAZs was calculated using ShannonWeiner diversity index and the highest total mean diversity index for vegetables was found in Kollengode panchayat (1.118) followed by Kanjikuzhy (1.108). Least diversity for vegetables was found in Chelakkara panchayat of SAZ Pazhayannur (0.740). Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) followed by LSD test was performed to identify the variations in diversity between panchayats and it was found that the diversity of vegetables grown in Kollengode, Kanjikuzhy, Devikulam and Vattavada panchayats were high and on par compared to the 239 vegetable diversity in Vadakarapathy and Chelakkara panchayats that were low and on par. Risk perceptions play a key role in the production and investment behaviour of farmers. Mean scores and ranks based on farmer’s perception on each source of risk under each risk category was found out. Results revealed that risk due to pest and diseases had emerged as major production risk in Kollengode (4.87), Vadakarapathy (4.64) and Kanjikuzhy (4.18) panchayats. Whereas, climatic variations (4.33) and fragmented land holding (4.49) emerged as major production risk in Vattavada and in Devikulam panchayats. In case of market risks, high cost of production was perceived as major market risks in Kollengode (4.04) and surplus production in Chelakkara (4.64) and Devikulam (4.31) panchayats. With respect to financial risks, complicated banking procedures emerged as major risk in five panchayats except in Vattavada panchayat where high demand of collaterals by banks (3.82) was the highest ranked risk. Import of produce from other states was perceived as the major institutional risk in Kollengode (4.47), Chelakkara (4.64) and Kanjikuzhy (4.62) panchayats whereas lack of government support (4.58) and lack of vegetable-oriented schemes (4.80) had emerged as highest ranked institutional risk sources in Devikulam and Vattavada panchayat. Labour shortage and migration was the highest ranked human risk source in Kollengode (4.33) Chelakkara (4.40), Vadakarapathy (3.76), Kanjikuzhy (4.07) panchayats whereas in Vattavada (3.58) and Devikulam (3.07) panchayats, farm accidents were perceived as major human risks. Paired wise comparison of risk sources revealed that in Kollengode, Chelakkara and Devikulam panchayats, production risks ranked first among all major categories of risks. In Vadakarapathy, Kanjikuzhy and Vattavada panchayats, price or market risk was the top ranked risk. An exploration into the severity of all the risk sources as perceived by farmers was done using the Pareto analysis. The results revealed that eighty per cent of the risk in vegetable farming was accounted by risk sources viz. crop damage by wild animals, surplus production of same crop, complicated banking 240 procedures, climatic variations, lack of vegetable oriented schemes, price fluctuation, high cost of production, lack of government support, import of produce from other states, labour shortage, high interest rate, poor soil quality, fragmented land holdings, water scarcity, poor extension to farmer linkage and incidences of pest and diseases. Distribution of respondents based on their risk propensity index values was done using mean and standard deviation and it was found that majority belonged to risk neutral category (69.63%) followed by risk takers category (18.15%) and risk averse category (12.22%). In order to know the distribution of respondents in each panchayat according to risk propensity, Skewness and Kurtosis was estimated and it was found that Kollengode had more risk takers. To understand the dispersion of risk neutral category, a scatter plot diagram was generated and the results revealed that risk takers were more in Kollengode and Kanjikuzhy whereas risk averse were more from Vadakarapathy, Chelakkara, Vattavada and Devikulam panchayats. Risk attitude scale was developed using the Likert’s Summated Rating method wherein 28 statements were selected from 95 statements using item discriminant analysis with ‘t’ value above 2.1 at 0.01 level of significance and with a high reliability coefficient of 0.95. On administering the scale on 270 vegetable farmers revealed that majority of the vegetable farmers (74.07%) belonged to moderately favourable category of risk attitude followed by farmers in the favourable risk attitude category (16.67%). Whereas farmers in the unfavourable category were 9.26 per cent. ‘P’ value was found to be less than 0.05 when administered with Kruskal–Wallis One Way Analysis of Variance which signified that there was significant difference between risk attitudes of farmers in more than one pair of panchayats. Thirteen personal and social characteristics of farmers were selected as independent variables of study. More than half (55.18%) of the farmers were found in the age group of 35-55 years, 46.30 per cent had gone up to middle school, 78.88 per cent of the farmers had an area up to 2.5acres, 37.03 per cent 241 respondents were engaged in vegetable farming and allied works and 53.33 per cent had economic water scarcity. With respect to all other variables, majority farmers were found in the medium category of respective variables. Hence to find the dispersion among respondents, mean value was used as the check value and it was found that majority of the respondents were in the low category viz. below mean in the case of vegetable farming experience (61.48%), annual income (55.56%), innovation proneness (56.67%), economic motivation (56.3%), extension participation (70%), social participation (94.44%), management orientation (58.89%) and high category with regard to credit orientation (53.7%). Result of correlation analysis between risk attitude and thirteen independent variables revealed that seven of the variables viz., area under vegetable cultivation, education, annual income, irrigation potential, extension participation, innovative proneness, economic motivation had positive and significant correlation with risk attitude of respondents at 1per cent level and variables management orientation and social participation at 5 per cent level. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was carried out to identify the most important variables that affect the risk attitude of vegetable farmers and it was found that four independent variables viz. innovation proneness, irrigation potential, vocational diversification and area under vegetable cultivation significantly predicted risk attitude (R2= 0.579) of vegetable farmers. Principal Component Analysis was done to identify the commonalities among the factors influencing the risk attitude and cluster them. Six principal components were selected having eigen value greater than one. PC1 named as personal socioeconomic variable explained for 44.39 percentage of variance. The risk management strategies adopted by vegetable farmers in the decreasing order of importance were mixed farming (4.82), crop diversification (4.03), investing in non-farm business (3.42), irrigation measures (3.40), decreasing area under vegetable crops (3.28) and producing at lowest possible cost (3.04). 242 On doing the perceived social benefit cost analysis of dominant crops it was found that beans (2.08) had the highest BC ratio followed by okra (1.79). Perceived social benefits of vegetable farming was assessed using the PEST (Political, Economic, Social and Technological) analysis tool and it was found that farmers perceived economic benefits (16.54) above social benefits (14.95) and technological benefits (13.61). The top ranked constraints were inefficient pest and disease management (57.4%), non-remunerative prices of produce (51.58%), poor marketing facilities (50%), non-availability of labour during peak season and high wages (44.81%), poor support from government agencies (43.7%). Ensuring availability of vegetable subsidies (44.4%), timely availability of inputs (37.78%), availability of quality planting materials (35.55%), timely payment of money by government agencies such as Horticorp (35.18%), irrigation facilities and creating awareness on improved irrigation methods for vegetable cultivation (32.59%) were the major solutions as perceived by farmers for remunerative and sustainable vegetable production. To conclude, ascertaining the attitude of farmers towards risks is important in understanding the risk behaviour of farmers. Therefore, in this study, risk attitude scale was developed and administered to the vegetable farmers which revealed that majority of the vegetable farmers belonged to moderately favourable category of risk attitude. The perception of farmers on major risk sources in vegetables and their propensity to take risk were identified which revealed that majority of the farmers were found in risk neutral category. Dominance-diversity profile of vegetable crops in SAZs was identified. Farmer’s strategies to cope with risk and the constraints and solutions for remunerative and sustainable vegetable production were delineated.Item Sustainable rice production in Wayanad district: a tribal perspective(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2023-01-28) Shahlas Binth T; Anil Kumar AThe study on “Sustainable rice production in Wayanad district: A tribal perspective” was conducted during 2018 to 2021 with the objectives to study the perception of tribal farmers on the issues of sustainable rice farming and develop a sustainability index. Besides, study the livelihood status of tribal agricultural labourers based on gender analysis and attitude of tribal and non-tribal rice farmers towards the sustainability of rice farming. Three panchayats of Wayanad district, Thavinjal from Northern high hills (AEU 15), Panamaram from Wayanad central plateau (AEU 20) and Thirunelli from Wayanad eastern plateau (AEU 21) were selected as the locations for the study. Thirty tribal rice farmers and 30 non tribal rice farmers from the identified panchayats were randomly selected in consultation with the Krishi Bhavans concerned, amounting to 180 respondents. For the study on agricultural labourers, 20 male and 20 female tribal labourers each were randomly selected from the three identified panchayats thus amounting to a total of 120 respondents. A focus group comprising 30 members who were the officials and social activists representing the society were selected to identify, analyse and triangulate the social issues of rice farming. To conclude, identification of issues of sustainable rice production, its perception by tribal farmers and development of a sustainability index were relevant and important in the present socio-economic milieu of Wayanad district. Sustainability index for tribal rice farmers can be used as an effective tool to assess their social, economical and environmental sustainability and to formulate strategies for strengthening their overall sustainability at the community level. An attitude scale was developed for the study which provided insights into the attitude of tribal and non-tribal farmers towards the sustainability of rice farming by developing an attitude scale. Study on gender analysis of livelihood status among tribal agricultural labourers could bring out the real issues faced by women agricultural labourers who were forced to make decisions and borrow money due to lack of involvement of their male counterparts in family affairs.Item User centered design, development, and end-user assessment of an M-tool for vegetable cultivation in polyhouse(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2022-05-20) Poornima C P.; Sakeer Husain, AHi-tech farming is gaining grip in Indian farming system. Polyhouse farming which is a subset of hi-tech farming is an alternate new system of crop production which reduces dependency on climatic factors along with economic use of water, fertilisers and other inputs necessarily needed for farming. In a state like Kerala where per capita availability of land is less and density of population is increasing, the polyhouse can be a boon to the farmers. With advancing technologies, proper information delivery system must be there to make f armers get updated with the progress in agriculture. As Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools are acquiring its foothold even among the rural communities, proper utilisation of suitable tools can help farmers to get more insight of the advances and in turn aid in efficient decision making.Item Socio-economic and organizational dynamics of traditional rice varieties in kerala(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, 2023-07-04) Ahaljith, R.; Jayasree Krishnankutty MTraditional rice varieties were being cultivated extensively in this State. They have high nutritive and medicinal value and are good for health and wellbeing. They are known to have high demand in local, national and international markets. This study aims at performance analysis of traditional rice farming, documenting the perceived attributes of traditional varieties and evaluating consumer preference among traditional rice varieties, analyze the nature and type of organizational support available for traditional rice and its utilization by farmers and subsequently come up with policy perspectives for the conservation of traditional rice varieties.Item Performance analysis of farmer producer companies (FPCs) in Kerala(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture,Vellanikkara, 2022-05-28) Akhil Ajith; Bonny, Binoo PFarmer Producer Companies (FPCs) are institutional innovations that hold tremendous potential in influencing the agricultural value chains by creating economic profit and social value. As such, the standard measures of financial analysis alone cannot provide an overall indication of the performance of these organisations. Therefore, an attempt to use integrated dimensions of socio-economic parameters were pursued in the present study to delineate the factors affecting the performance of FPCs and in the development of a performance index to grade the FPCs. The results of the study also helped in evolving policy recommendations that could improve the performance of FPCs in a sustainable way. The study followed ex-post facto research design conducted among 30 FPCs selected randomly from the 14 districts of Kerala. Proportionate random sampling was employed to ascertain the number of FPCs selected from each district and to identify 120 shareholders. Random and exhaustive sampling was followed respectively in the selection of 60 director board members and 30 CEOs to make the total sample size of 210.Item Vulnerability assessment for livelihood inclusion and social empowerment(VALISE) of farmers: a post flood analysis of Kerala state(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, 2022-09-26) Dhanusha Balakrishnan.; Seema, BThe study entitled ‘Vulnerability Assessment for Livelihood Inclusion and Social Empowerment (VALISE) of farmers: a post flood analysis of Kerala state was conducted during 2018 to 2021 with the major objectivesto establish a Societal Vulnerability Index for Floods and Landslides(SVIFL) and map the vulnerability hotspots for the affected areas. The study also delineated the coping strategies adopted during various phases of the floods and the impact of various post flood schemes and measures by the Government. The study also developed a Climate Adaptive Agricultural Extension Approach (CAAEA) to formulate mitigation strategies and suggest adaptation strategies for the farmers. For this study, four of the 14 districts of Kerala, namely, Alappuzha and Pathanamthitta from lowlands, Idukki and Wayanad districts from highlands were purposively selected for flood and landslide vulnerability assessment. Two severely flood affected panchayats of Alappuzha, namely Kainakari (KK) and Ambalappuzha (AP), were selected for the study. From Pathanamthitta, Kadapra (KD) and Niranam (NM), two low lying panchayats where floods occur almost every year were selected. Adimali (AD) and Vellathooval (VT) panchayats were particularly selected for landslide vulnerability assessment in the Idukki district. Panamaram (PM) and Meppadi (MD) panchayats from Wayanad district were considered for the landslide vulnerability assessment. A multistage sampling method was adopted for data collection in this study. A total of 520 farmers were selected for the study using proportionate sampling method. In this study, a Societal Vulnerability Index for Floods and Landslides (SVIFL) was established for highlands and lowlands to assess the flood vulnerability according to the local situation. The SVIFL developed for this study consists of four major components such as social, physical, environmental and economical, which were estimated in terms of the three factors of exposure, sensitivity and resilience. Component wise results revealed that social vulnerability is highest in the highlands. Among them, MD (0.514) has the highest vulnerability to disasters, especially landslides, followed by VT (0.485) and AD (0.456). In case of lowlands, social vulnerability to flooding is highest in AP (0.442) of Alappuzha. In the case of economic component, economic vulnerability to floods and associated landslides is highest in the MD (0.715) of Wayanad district followed by PM (0.626) of Wayanad and VT (0.571) of Idukki district. In the context of environmental component too, the highlands are more vulnerable compared to the lowlands. Among the highlands, VT (0.549) of Idukki has the highest vulnerability, followed by MD (0.526) of Wayanad. In the case of Physical component, KK (0.667) has the highest physical vulnerability followed by AP (0.626) of Alappuzha. According to the SVIFLvalues, panchayat MD in Wayanad appeared to be the most vulnerable region among the study areas with a SVIFL index value of 0.555. The second highest vulnerability was recorded for panchayat KK (0.509), the low-lying flood-prone region of Alappuzha. The lowest vulnerability when compared to other regions was found for KD (0.369) of Pathanamthitta. Coping mechanisms played an important role in reducing the disaster risk factors, and smoothening the consequences of the disaster to improve the livelihood and living conditions of disaster affected communities. In this study, coping mechanisms adopted at farmer level, community level and government level have been documented with the help of a Coping Strategies Index for Floods and Landslides (CSIFL). Results revealed that at farmer level in highlands, borrowing of money, in the post disaster situation (669), homestead vegetable gardening (661), and crop diversification (627) scored the highest scores and in the case of lowlands, increased dependence on chemical fertilizers (776) have scored the highest value. At the community level, in both highlands and lowlands, coping strategies were frequently adopted in the food security component with CSIFL values 626.33 and 642.5 respectively. At the government level, in highlands and lowlands, setting up of community kitchens (837) and relief camps (766) were ranked first and second according to CSIFL values. Documentation of post flood livelihood inclusive activities, helped us to understand the extent to which the farmers were affected by the disaster and the different livelihood options adopted by the farmers after the disaster. The results of post flood livelihood analysis revealed that in highlands, farm diversification was the most adopted (60.8%) post flood livelihood mechanism followed by switching to non-farm based livelihoods (27.6%). In the case of lowlands, switching to nonfarm based livelihoods (36.78) was the most adopted post flood livelihood mechanism followed by farm diversification. An impact assessment was conducted to analyse, the impact of Punarjani scheme among the farmers in the flood and landslide affected panchayaths. The results of the study revealed that, in highlands, 10.8% farmers have benefitted from the scheme economically, 7.6% benefitted from the scheme in the aspect of crop production, 5.2% in the socio psychological aspect and 2.8% in terms of human capital. In the case of lowlands, Punarjani scheme had an impact on farmers mostly in the area of crop production (26.05%), followed by monetary benefits (19.16%). Five personal and psychological characteristics of the farmers were selected as independent variables of the study. In the case of neighbourhood cohesion, about 53% of the farmers in highlands and 61.22% farmers in lowlands were found to have medium neighbourhood cohesion. In terms of self-efficacy, 58% of the farmers in highlands and 60.84% of the farmers in lowlands were reported to have medium level of self-efficacy. Similarly, majority of the farmers in highlands (57.98%, 52.53%) and lowlands (65.02%, 58.17%), were observed to have medium level of optimism and altruism respectively. In the case of risk propensity, 68.48% of the farmers in highlands and 62.36% of the farmers in lowlands belonged to the medium category of optimism. A Climate Adaptive Agricultural Extension Approach (CAAEA) was developed to suggest adaptation strategies to the farmers as well as policy makers to various climate risks. For the construction of framework, major problems faced by the farmers in relation to climate change, were scored on a four point continuum. The results further revealed, wild animal attack, landslide and excessive rain in a short period of time, to be the major climate risks in highlands and scarcity of drinking water, increased pest and disease infestation and poultry and livestock diseases in lowlands. These individual problems were further correlated with the climate risks, to understand the relation and construct the framework. To conclude, SVIFL can be used as an effective tool for assessing farmers' vulnerability to floods and landslides. The results of this study may enable stakeholders to determine the vulnerability of their residential areas. For policy makers, the documentation of coping mechanisms adopted at various levels may be useful in formulating disaster risk reduction strategies at the panchayat or community level. Results of post flood livelihood mechanisms shows the areas in which livelihood alternatives may be formulated in the post disaster phase. Impact study of Punarjani scheme shows that, the program could not achieve the major objectives, it was primarily implemented for and only few farmer respondents benefitted from this post flood scheme.Item Participatory technology intervention and its assessment through environmental scanning of high range home gardens in Idukki district: An action research(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture , Vellayani, 2022-09-05) Nithish Babu M.; Allan ThomasThe study on “Participatory technology intervention and its assessment through environmental scanning of high range home gardens in Idukki district: Action research” was conducted during 2017 to 2020 with the objectives to identify the crop dominance cum its technology gaps through environmental scanning of the high-range home garden systems and thereafter conduct action research for assessing the technology adoption through participatory technology intervention. Kerala is often consecrated as the 'Mecca of home gardens', owing to its rich species diversity, sustainability, ethnic values and as a means of livelihood. It contributes to the food, nutritional, economic needs and biodiversity security of the state fulfilling the different pillars of socio-economic and environmental stability in almost 70 lakhs home gardens in the state. In this study, Idukki district was selected with the intention to identify the variability in the structure and cropping pattern of the home garden systems of the high range areas. The numerical and economical dominance of crops were worked out in different crop based high range home gardens on a seven-point continuum and the results revealed that banana, black pepper, cardamom and cabbage were the most dominant crops in the high range home gardens. However, there were 25 crops in banana-based, 22 crops in black pepper-based, 23 crops in cardamom based and 37 crops in vegetable-based home gardens. An exploration on the diversity profile of high range home gardens under four agro ecological unit of Idukki revealed that significant variability existed in the crop diversity in high range home gardens. The diversity for the four major crop based home gardens viz., ‘banana, black pepper, cardamom and vegetables’ based home garden was calculated using Shannon-Weiner index of diversity and the highest total mean diversity index (2.185) was recorded in banana-based home gardens whereas the lowest diversity index was noted in vegetable-based home gardens (1.034). On enumerating the crop wise diversity index for different crop based high range home garden system, maximum biodiversity was observed for spices (1.425, 1.548 and 1.274) respectively in banana based, black pepper based and cardamom based high range home gardens. However, in vegetables-based home gardens maximum biodiversity (1.252) was observed for vegetables. The lowest biodiversity index was recorded in forage crops (0.054) for banana based high range home gardens, medicinal plants (0.417) in pepper-based home gardens, tubers (0.282, 0.019) respectively in cardamom and vegetables based high range home gardens. On comparing the region wise diversity index, it was observed that the courtyard had maximum biodiversity (2.596, 2.455, 2.312 and 1.189) respectively in all the four dominant crop based high range home gardens. However, the diversity index for banana and vegetable based high range home gardens did not vary much for courtyard and mid-region biodiversity. The technology need assessment for top seven dominant crops was done and the results revealed that production technology was the most needed compared to protection and value addition technology in banana and vegetables based high range home gardens. However, in black pepper and cardamom based high range home gardens, protection technology was the most needed compared to production and value addition. On assessing the perception of farmers for the technology needs of different crops under the four attributes viz., technology not available; technology available but not applicable; technology available, applicable but not sustainable; and technology available, applicable but sustainable, it was noted that highest weighted mean score was observed for the attributes viz., technology not available and technology available but not applicable for both production and protection technologies. The practice wise technology needs studies also reconfirmed the above findings with maximum technology need reported for nutrient management (5.50, and 5.00) in the case of banana and vegetables-based home gardens respectively, whereas for black pepper-based home gardens, maximum technology need was reported for foot rot disease (5.30). In the case of cardamom-based home gardens, maximum technology need was reported for cardamom thrips (4.40). Maximum of three levels of vertical diversification was observed in banana itself in banana-based home gardens, whereas in black pepper based home gardens maximum diversification was noted for black pepper and turmeric with three levels of vertical diversification. In cardamom-based home gardens, maximum vertical diversification was recorded in cardamom with four levels of diversification whereas in vegetable based home garden maximum diversification was noted in cabbage, strawberry, potato and carrot with two levels of vertical diversification. The study on the extent of horizontal diversification revealed that about 40 per cent of the banana-based home gardens exhibited 5-tier horizontal diversifications. About 46.67 per cent of black pepper dominant home gardens showed 4-tier of horizontal diversification whereas cardamom based home gardens exhibited 3-tier diversification. In case of vegetable based home gardens, more than 50 per cent of the home gardens exhibited more than 6-tier of diversification. About 75 per cent of the home gardens were comprised under the category of 4, 5 or 6 tier horizontal diversification. Based upon the technology needs of the dominant crops in different cropbased home gardens, frontline demonstrations were conducted in four home gardens on production aspects of banana and cabbage, and protection aspects for black pepper and cardamom. The study clearly highlights that adoption of scientific approach in banana cultivation and correct use of technology in accordance to KAU POP will help the farmer to derive more profit (BC ratio2.06) through improved production and also will enable the farmers to learn the skill of judicious use of fertilizers and pesticides. The adoption of scientific plant protection operations in black pepper also aids the farmers to counteract the impact of foot rot disease. However, in cardamom, farmers practice was more effective and it may be due to the usage of new generation insecticides and the frequent application of pesticides. The lower efficacy exhibited by KAU practice may owe the factors viz., development of resistance to quinalphos and also due to longer application intervals. The adoption of KAU POP practices increased the yield in cabbage compared to farmer practices, but the yield / plot was highest in farmers field as compared to KAU practice that can be substantiated by the additional plant number maintained by the farmer due to the adoption of lower spacing. The crowdsourcing of knowledge was done in four stages for different crops like banana, black pepper, cardamom and cabbage dominant home garden systems. The results on the checklist monitored by the lead farmer through crowd sourcing and percentage adoption of production activities of banana revealed that 86.30 per cent of the farmers fully adopted the technology. The high adoption of almost all practices or activities can be attributed to the outcome of crowdsourcing knowledge through farmer participatory approaches. The crowd sourcing studies on management practices of foot rot disease of black pepper revealed that more than 70 per cent of the farmers fully adopted the technology. The drenching of potassium phosophonate 3ml per litre @ 5-10 litres per vine was the most adopted practice (93.33 %) in black pepper based high range home gardens of Idukki district. In case of management practices of thrips in cardamom, the results showed that 70 per cent of the farmers fully adopted the recommended practices. However, it was interesting to note that farmers used different type of new generation pesticides, despite of its higher cost for the management of thrips to get high returns for the produce. In vegetable-based home gardens, the study revealed that 71.11 per cent of the farmers fully adopted the recommended practices. It was also noted that among the nine prescribed cultural operations 100 per cent of the farmers practiced earthing up operations, and 86.67 per cent of the farmers fully adopted the techniques of split dose application of fertilizers in right quantity and spraying of Pseudomonas. A total of seven technological dimensions were identified as suitable for the high range home gardens. The economical (7.79), environmental (7.87) and psychological (7.80), dimensions were the most important ones perceived by the participating farmers whereas economical (7.27), psychological (7.45), and political (7.40) dimensions were the important dimensions as perceived by the non-participating farmers. In case of extension personnel’s, economical (7.18), environmental (7.14), and psychological (6.76) dimension were perceived as the most important ones. The results of the cluster analysis revealed that the different clustering of sub dimensions of different major dimensions invariably shows the interaction effect. The study on distribution of respondents based on the extent of adoption of recommended practices revealed that about 40 per cent of banana farmers showed higher adoption rate of recommended practices whereas 70 per cent farmers of black pepper showed medium level of adoption. About 77.67 per cent and 60 per cent of cardamom farmers and cabbage growing farmers exhibited medium level of adoption. The relationship between ten independent variables with the dependent variable extent of adoption was worked out for the four major crop based high range home garden systems. It was found that in case of banana growing farmers five out of ten independent variable were positively and significantly correlating with the extent of adoption, wherein innovativeness (0.598), irrigation potential (0.665) and economic motivation (0.707) were significant at 1 per cent level of significance and market orientation (0.431) and extension contact (0.369) was significant at 5 per cent level of significance. In case of black pepper growing farmers four out of the ten independent variables were positively and significantly correlating with the dependent variable, wherein market orientation (0.541), extension contact (0.464), irrigation potential (0.607) and economic motivation (0.825) were significant at 1 per cent level of significance. Among the cardamom growing farmers it was found that five independent variables were found to be positively and significantly correlated with the extent of adoption, where market orientation (0.817), extension contact (0.834), innovativeness (0.727), irrigation potential (0.617 and economic motivation (0.533) were significant at 1 per cent level of significance. In case of the vegetable growing farmers, it was found that five out of the ten independent variables were positively and significantly correlated with the extent of adoption, wherein land area (0.521), market orientation (0.659), extension contact (0.579) and economic motivation (0.704) were significant at 1 per cent level of significance and annual income (0.381) was significant at 5 per cent level of significance. This study on the gender roles in different crop-based high range home gardens revealed that in case of banana, black pepper, cardamom and vegetablebased home gardens men involved more in land preparation, planting, crop protection and harvesting operations and women were involved in weeding and value addition however in case of vegetable based home gardens women engaged in irrigation also. The constraints delineated were, unpredictable natural calamities related crop loss (365) followed by extortionate cost of inputs (352), inadequate knowledge on scientific crop production (347) and lack of extension services (337) in the decreasing order of importance. The major suggestions as perceived by extension personnel’s for refinement of home garden farmers were, development of package of practices in tune with the home garden system (94.16%) and follow up and assistance by extension agencies on the adoption of recommended scientific practices (92.50%), promotion of FIGs and FPO’S for post-harvest handling and marketing (96.00%) and inclusion of market clusters to increase profit and to reduce the risk (92.50%). To conclude, the study establishes different level of dominance and diversity profile and delineated the technology needs, technology adoption and different dimensions suited for high range home gardens. The extent of horizontal and vertical diversification, the extent of adoption of technologies through crowd sourcing and the relationship of independent variables with extent of adoption was determined. The gender roles, constraints and suggestions for promoting sustainable high range home gardens were delineated.Item Institutionalization of decentralized planning in agriculture in Kerala: trends, determinants and policy imperatives(Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture ,Vellanikkara, 2022-03-30) Abdul Jabbar, P K.; Jiju P AlexKerala has successfully evolved a paradigm of decentralized planning by utilizing the provisions of the 73rd and 74th amendments of the constitution. Local governments have been transformed as effective instruments for formulating and implementing development programmes through people’s participation. They are empowered to discharge such functions through strategic devolution of functions, functionaries and funds. Though a robust framework has been evolved over time to make decentralized planning operational, several bottle necks related to local governance affect the efficacy of planning and implementation processes at the grassroots level. This is evident in the productive sector in general and agriculture in particular. It was in this backdrop the present study was conducted. The study was primarily intended to describe the process of institutionalization of decentralized planning in agriculture in Kerala. In this connection, transitions in the administrative framework and policy environment of decentralized planning were also explored. The determinants of the efficacy of decentralized planning in agriculture and the nature of their influence as experienced by major actors of the process were also identified. The study also explored the accomplishments in the agricultural sector since institutionalization of decentralized planning. Alongside, policy imperatives of the experiences of institutionalization were delineated. The sample consisted of 160 respondents comprising of agricultural officers, panchayat presidents and members of the agricultural working group of various development sectors. Respondents were drawn from 40 grama panchayaths selected from five districts representing the five major agroclimatic regions. The study has revealed that there are 15 distinct processes of decentralized planning in the productive sector at the LSGI level. They have evolved over a period of three five-year plans through various iterative processes and drawing lessons from diverse field experiences. The state government plan allocation to local selfgovernments showed decreasing trend from Ninth Five Year Plan onwards. While local self-government institutions (LSGIs) had been provided with 29.29 per cent of state plan fund allocation, it was reduced to 22.9 per cent and 24.2 per cent in the tenth and eleventh five-year plans respectively. Plan expenditure of LSGIs was found to range from 74.81 per cent to 105.25 per cent during this period. It could also be observed that the mandatory sectoral ceilings for productive sector enforced in various plans have succeeded in ensuring investment in various sub sectors of agriculture. Many institutional innovations were initiated to foster people’s participation in planning. Introduction of ward development committees and Ayalsabhas was a major step towards this direction. However, attempts towards additional resource pooling, collaboration with academic institutions to enhance quality of projects and attempts to avoid thin spread of resources were found to be ineffective. Formulating agricultural projects with the assistance of cooperative sector and integrating central and state schemes were also not effective. In spite of the guidelines for formulating joint projects and muti year projects, local bodies were not venturing to such projects, suggesting that a motivational measure to promote joint projects among local bodies be introduced. Moreover, selection of members to the working group and PPC have to be according to their capabilities adjudged based on a state wide criteria. Employing modern technologies for primary processing and value addition, better provision of services, networking of producers and efficient marketing were not adequately mainstreamed by LSGIs in their plans. The efficacy of processes involved in decentralised planning was perceived differently by different categories of actors. Out of the 15 processes, plan appraisal, integration and implementation were perceived to have low efficacy. Plan formulation and resource allocation were also found to have low efficacy. Integration of projects had the lowest efficacy perception score. However, approval of plans by the District Planning Committee, preparation of detailed projects by the working group, holding of Gramasabha, preparation of draft plan proposals and discussion in the development seminar were reported to have high efficacy. Analysis of the attributes of the actors which contributed to their perception on the efficacy of decentralized planning process revealed that four major factors viz. participation, group decision making, experience and knowledge mediation could explain 77.22 per cent variance. Majority of agricultural officers had medium level of perceived efficacy, significantly influenced by their participation-performance interdependence factor and decentralization- development facilitation factors. Role performance of Agricultural Officers in decentralised planning was found to be high. They had performed their roles actively in budgeting of project proposals, planning, monitoring and evaluation, in the order of involvement. Lowest performance level of Agricultural Officers was found to be in functions related to agricultural extension. Accomplishments of decentralized planning in agriculture were quantified in terms physical targets and financial achievements. Plan fund allocation in the productive sector was found to be the highest in the high range zone, followed by problem zone. Plan expenditure in the districts selected from high range zone, northern region and problem zone was higher than 80 per cent. Projects on various aspects of rice, vegetables and banana had received more funds than other sub sectors during the reference period. With regard to the allocations spent, assistance to labour cost for rice farmers was the major intervention while those for coconut development and promotion of intercropping were less than 10% and 3% of respectively. Compared to other crops, the attention paid by local bodies to development of tuber crops, spices and pulses was less. Cashew being a hardy crop for waste lands did not find any place in decentralized plans of north, central and high range zones. Several deficiencies were found in the process of decentralised planning. Most importantly, there should be focused efforts for enhancing the capacities of working groups and Planning Committees. Integration of development interventions by various agencies at the local level have to be ensured through better coordination. Collective deliberations on sectoral working group reports coordinated by panchayath planning committee will foster shared vision and convergence among functions of various officials transferred to the Grama panchayath. The panchayath level data base, Peoples’ Bio Diversity Register formulated through Bio Diversity Management Committees and the watershed master plan have to be updated through massive farmer participation to ensure data base support to local planning and foster the opportunities for local resource mobilization. Further, assistance for conservation and multiplication of local germplasm, traditional seed reserves by local farmer clusters, community seed banks and seed growers’ networks have to be initiated and the subsidy guidelines have to be broadened to include such initiatives. The perception of poor marketing infrastructure was the most ranked among various constraints analyzed. With regard to projects to bridge the skill gaps in farming and improved service delivery, the existing Agro Service Centres (ASC) at block level and Farmer Service Centres should be networked for technologybased services with supporting projects from decentralized plan allocations. A KVKATMA- LSGD linkage will resolve the issues of less propagation of technologies in projects and less expertise of working group members. To enhance participation of youth in gramasabha a drive on decentralization, gramasabha literacy and the need to participate for youth was suggested as part of school and college syllabus.